<p>Trinity Church in the City of Boston, located in the Back Bay of Boston, Massachusetts, is a parish of the Episcopal Diocese of Massachusetts. The congregation, currently standing at approximately 3,000 households, was founded in 1734. Five services are offered each Sunday, and weekday services are offered three times a week from September through June. Within the spectrum of worship styles in the Anglican tradition, Trinity Church has historically been considered a Broad Church parish.</p><br>
<p>In addition to worship, the parish is actively involved in service to the community, pastoral care, programs for children and teenagers, and Christian education for all ages. The church is home to several high-level choirs, including the Trinity Choir, Trinity Schola, Trinity Choristers, and Trinity Chamber Choir. The building is currently under study for becoming a Boston Landmark.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>After its former site on Summer Street burned in the Great Boston Fire of 1872, the current church complex was erected under the direction of Rector Phillips Brooks (1835–1893), one of the best-known and most charismatic preachers of his time.</p><br>
<p>The church and parish house were designed by Henry Hobson Richardson and construction took place from 1872 to 1877, when the complex was consecrated. Situated on Copley Square in Back Bay, Trinity Church is the building that established Richardson&#39;s reputation. It is the birthplace and archetype of the Richardsonian Romanesque style, characterized by a clay roof, polychromy, rough stone, heavy arches, and a massive tower. This style was soon adopted for a number of public buildings across the United States. The stone used was Dedham Granite.</p><br>
<h2>Music</h2><br>
<h3>Choirs</h3><br>
<p>Each December, the choirs of Trinity offer three iterations of a service of Candlelight Carols. These are a "Boston tradition", and very popular events, drawing nearly 5,000 attendees from as far away as Maine. A traditional scene in Copley Square in December is that of a long line of people waiting to enter the church for the free event. The service is based on the Nine Lessons and Carols model developed at King&#39;s College, Cambridge.</p><br>
<p>In addition to their primary function of supporting worship, the choirs of Trinity Church are fixtures in the rich musical landscape of Boston. The Trinity Choir has toured extensively, and can be heard on several critically acclaimed recordings. The Trinity Choristers are a group of children who learn music and sing in the tradition of the Royal School of Church Music. The current Director of Music and Organist is Richard Webster. The Trinity Choir and Trinity Choristers tour England every three years, serving as choirs-in-residence at major houses of worship such as Ely Cathedral, Chichester Cathedral, and Westminster Abbey (summer 2016).</p><br>
<h3>Organs</h3><br>
<p>1876: The original organ at Trinity was built by Hilborne L. Roosevelt in 1876, his Opus 29. It had mechanical action, assisted by Barker levers on all divisions and an electrically controlled Echo division, but its location in the chancel proved unsatisfactory, and the organ was moved to the gallery.</p><br>
<p>1903: Hutchings-Votey built a new instrument for the chancel and made both organs playable from a single console.</p><br>
<p>1924: Ernest M. Skinner undertook a rebuilding project, Opus 479, involving changes to both the Roosevelt and Hutchings-Votey instruments, but by 1926 it had expanded to Opus 573 as a virtually new organ in the gallery, as well as a new chancel console.</p><br>
<p>1956: Aeolian-Skinner provided a new console in 1956 and, in 1960, installed a new chancel organ.</p><br>
<p>1962: The gallery organ was extensively rebuilt, and major tonal modifications were made by Jason McKown, who maintained the organs for many years.</p><br>
<p>1987: Jack Steinkampf&#39; installed a rank of horizontal trumpet pipes under the west gallery window. This festival trumpet is given in memory of Paul Albert Merrill.</p><br>
<p>Late 1990s: In conjunction with the parish&#39;s building campaign, a plan was set out with Foley-Baker, Inc., for the cleaning and refurbishment of both organs and their joint console.</p><br>
<p>The nave and chancel organs feature 121 stops, 113 ranks, and 6898 pipes.</p><br>
<h2>Service</h2><br>
<p>Trinity Church offers five services on Sundays, including a now rarely heard modified version of Rite I Morning Prayer including a sermon and extra anthem, as well as a service of sung Compline in the late evening. Weekday services include Wednesday Evensong and Thursday Holy Eucharist with Prayers for Healing.</p><br>
<p>Trinity has played host to many special services over the years, due mainly to its central location in Boston, large seating capacity, and reputation as a parish willing to open its doors and be "Boston&#39;s church." These services have included interfaith (Christian, Jewish, Muslim) services immediately following the 9/11 attacks, a similar service following the July 2005 London bombings, and many prominent funerals, consecrations of bishops, and the like.</p><br>
<h3>Service to the community at home and abroad</h3><br>
<p>The parish supports many forms of community outreach and social justice ministry. These include partnerships with Rosies Place, the Greater Boston Interfaith Organization, Pine Street Inn, Habitat for Humanity, Community Servings, the Walk for Hunger, the Rodman Ride for Kids, and others. The Trinity Boston Foundation is a nonprofit organization with a mission to support the social and emotional well-being and development of young people. Formed in 2007, it grew out of several of Trinity Churchs outreach ministries, and now functions as a separately incorporated subsidiary organization that directly serves approximately 500 young people in the Boston community. The Trinity Boston Foundation&#39;s programs honor and respect people of all faith traditions, including those with no faith tradition.</p><br>
<h2>Rectors</h2><br>
<p>In the Episcopal Church in the United States of America, the Rector is the priest elected to head a self-supporting parish. Because of the importance of Trinity Church in the life of the city of Boston, the Rectors had great influence in the political and social sphere, especially in the early years of the church through the mid-1900s.</p><br>
<p>Phillips Brooks, who was Rector from 1869-1891 has been memorialized in the official calendar of the Episcopal Church. His feast day in the calendar according to the 1979 Book of Common Prayer is January 23. His statue is located on the left exterior of the church.</p><br>
<p>The following are the Rectors of Trinity Church from its founding to the present day:</p><br>
<h2>Art and architecture</h2><br>
<p>The buildings plan is a modified Greek Cross with four arms extending outwards from the central tower, which stands 64 m (211 ft) tall. The church is situated in Copley Square, in the shadow of the John Hancock Tower. Having been built in Bostons Back Bay, which was originally a mud flat, Trinity rests on some 4,500 wooden piles, each driven through 30 feet of gravel fill, silt, and clay, and constantly wetted by the water table of the Back Bay as they will rot if exposed to air.</p><br>
<p>Its interior murals, which cover over 21,500 square feet (about 2,000 m²) were completed entirely by American artists. Richardson and Brooks decided that a richly colored interior was essential and turned to John La Farge (1835–1910) for help. La Farge had never performed a commission on this scale, but realized its importance and asked only for his costs to be covered. The results established La Farge&#39;s reputation.</p><br>
<p>The church&#39;s windows were originally clear glass at consecration in 1877, with one exception, but soon major windows were added. Four windows were designed by Edward Burne-Jones and executed by William Morris. Another four windows were exceptional commissions by John La Farge, and revolutionized window glass with their layering of opalescent glass. The suter window was painted by Charles Mills.</p><br>
<p>Trinity Church is the only church in the United States and the only building in Boston that has been honored as one of the "Ten Most Significant Buildings in the United States" by the American Institute of Architects (AIA). In 1885, architects voted Trinity Church as the most important building in the USA Trinity Church is the only building from the original 1885 list still included in the AIA&#39;s current top ten list. The building was designated a National Historic Landmark on December 30, 1970.</p><br>
<p>The church also houses sculptures by Daniel Chester French and Augustus Saint-Gaudens</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Interior scenes from The Boondock Saints were filmed within Trinity Church.</p><br>
<p>The church was featured in the 2015 video game Fallout 4.</p><br>
<p>Skillounta is a former municipality in Elis, West Greece, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Andritsaina-Krestena, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 194.409 km. It is named after the ancient town Scillus, which was located in the area. Its seat of administration was in the town Krestena. The territory of the municipal unit Skillounta stretches from the plains on the Ionian Sea coast to the forested mountains of southeastern Elis. The river Alfeios forms its northern border. Krestena is 6 km south of Olympia, 12 km north of Zacharo and 18 km southeast of Pyrgos. The Greek National Road 9/E55  passes through Kallikomo in the western part of Skillounta, and the Greek National Road 76 to Andritsaina and Megalopoli runs west to east through Krestena and Graikas.</p><br>
<h2>Subdivisions</h2><br>
<p>The municipal unit Skillounta is subdivided into the following communities (constituent villages in brackets):</p><br>
<p>Diasella (Diasella, Ladikaki, Papa Chania, Skala)</p><br>
<p>Frixa (Frixa, Anemochoraki)</p><br>
<p>Graikas</p><br>
<p>Gryllos (Gryllos, Chani Gryllou)</p><br>
<p>Kallikomo (Kallikomo, Krounoi, Ladiko)</p><br>
<p>Kalyvakia (Nea Kalyvakia)</p><br>
<p>Kato Samiko (Kato Samiko, Kleidi, Fragkokklisia)</p><br>
<p>Krestena (Krestena, Moschoula, Poros)</p><br>
<p>Makrisia</p><br>
<p>Platiana</p><br>
<p>Ploutochori (Neo Chorio)</p><br>
<p>Raches</p><br>
<p>Samiko</p><br>
<p>Skillountia (Skillountia, Nea Skillountia)</p><br>
<p>Trypiti (Trypiti, Lekani)</p><br>
<p>Vrina</p><br>
<h2>Sites of interest</h2><br>
<p>Iardanos Tomb - situated near the village Kleidi, community of Kato Samiko. It was excavated in 1954 and contained 16 graves.</p><br>
<h2>Population</h2><br>
<p>The Clarence River is on northeast South Island of New Zealand. It is 230 km long, which makes it the eighth longest river in New Zealand.</p><br>
<p>For its first 50 km, the river runs in a generally southeastern direction. It then turns northeast, running down a long straight valley between the Inland and Seaward Kaikoura Ranges. At the end of the Seaward Kaikouras, the river meanders through undulating hill country before draining into the Pacific Ocean near the town of Clarence. A large part of the river is within the boundaries of Molesworth Station.</p><br>
<p>Northern tributaries along the middle segment of Clarence River (e.g., Mead Stream, Dee Stream, Branch Stream, Muzzle Stream) cut through an uplifted, folded and rotated block of limestone and marl that accumulated on the seafloor from the late Cretaceous through the Paleocene and middle Eocene (75–45 million years ago). Exposures of this limestone—the Amuri Limestone—provide some of the most complete records for this time interval of Earth&#39;s history. They have provided important insights to our understanding of the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM), Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 (ETM-2), and other Paleogene hyperthermal events</p><br>
<p>A slip triggered by the 2016 Kaikoura earthquake blocked the Clarence River 10 to 12 km from its mouth, with water building up behind the slip. Residents near the river downstream from the slip were evacuated. The river broke through the debris 16 hours after it occurred.</p><br>
<p>Lake Ginninderra is an artificial lake located on the Ginninderra Creek in Canberra. It is adjacent to the Belconnen Town Centre. The lake was constructed in 1974 to collect stormwater discharge from a 98.8 km&sup2; catchment that includes the surrounding suburbs of Aranda, Macquarie, Cook, Bruce, Belconnen, McKellar, Giralang, Kaleen in the eastern areas of Belconnen.</p><br>
<p>The lake is home to much wildlife, such as the Black swan, moorhens, ducks and the Rakali.</p><br>
<p>The lake was formed through the construction of the Ginninderra Drive embankment across Ginninderra Creek. The lake has a surface area of 1.05 km&sup2; and an average depth of 3.5 m. Water flow out of the lake is via a multi-celled concrete culvert structure and spillway chute on the Ginninderra Drive embankment.</p><br>
<p>During 2004 the Ginninderra Drive embankment was raised by one metre. The earthen embankments on the Coulter Drive side of the lake have been raised as well.</p><br>
<p>The Wollemi Creek, a partly perennial stream of the Hawkesbury-Nepean catchment, is located in the Central Tablelands and Blue Mountains regions of New South Wales, Australia.</p><br>
<h2>Course and features</h2><br>
<p>The Wollemi Creek rises below Kekeelbon Mountains on the southern slopes of Mount Mounundilla, within the Wollemi Range, in remote country within the Wollemi National Park, north northwest of the locality of Putty. The river flows generally south southeast and south southwest, generally adjacent to the Putty Road, joined by seven minor tributaries before reaching its confluence with the Colo River in the upper reaches of the Colo Gorge, about 25 km south southeast of Glen Davis. The river descends 549 m over its 84 km course.</p><br>
<p>The upper Wollemi Creek has two main sources, one originating at about 800 m altitude 5 km east of Mount Monundilla, and the other due south of that mountain. Both flow through rough deep gorges at about 600 m in permanent dry weather flows, and fast flowing flood, until their confluence at about 300 m, due west of Putty, from where the creek flows eventually into the Colo.</p><br>
<p>The primary inhabitants of the upper creek are yabbies, eels, and possums. Some ancient massive gums populate the lower gorges and very few signs of non&ndash;native infestations are apparent, one notable exception being mistletoe which infests the upper branches of the oldest trees.</p><br>
<p>The Matiri River is a river located in the northwest of New Zealand&#39;s South Island.</p><br>
<p>It runs south for 30 kilometres from its headwaters west of Mount Owen in Kahurangi National Park to its confluence with the Buller River just below the town of Murchison. Halfway along its length, it passes through Lake Matiri. Downstream from Lake Matiri the banks of the river has mixed livestock farming and some small scale forestry.</p><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<p>The river is used for whitewater recreation. It has a tight grade III rapid in a narrow cleft of a gorge a short distance upstream of the road end. There are also two bouldery drops that can only be run in high flows when it may reach grade IV. The river is considered to be best run when the Buller River is too high and dangerous.</p><br>
<p>A tramping track that starts at the road end runs along the western side of the river.</p><br>
<h2>Hydroelectricity</h2><br>
<p>New Zealand Energy Limited have proposed the Matiri Project hydroelectric power scheme on the river.</p><br>
<p>The Tasman Glacier / Haupapa is the largest glacier in New Zealand, and one of several large glaciers which flow south and east towards the Mackenzie Basin from the Southern Alps in New Zealand&#39;s South Island.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>At 23.5 km in length, Tasman Glacier is still New Zealand&#39;s longest glacier, despite shrinking considerably from the 1990s onwards. It is as much as 4 km wide and 600 m thick, and lies entirely within the borders of Aoraki/Mount Cook National Park. The glacier covers an area of 101 km&sup2; and starts at a height of 3,000 m above sea level. Snowfall during the winter and spring seasons may accumulate up to 50 m. After the summer melt, 7 m may remain in the high altitude gacier head</p><br>
<p>The Tasman flows south west from Hochstetter Dome and Mount Elie De Beaumont alongside the southern slopes of the Minarets peak and south along the eastern flank of New Zealand&#39;s two highest mountains, Mount Tasman and its higher southern neighbour Aoraki / Mount Cook.</p><br>
<p>Although its upper reaches are snow-covered, rocks carried by the glacier are exposed by ablation along its course, and the lower glacier is entirely rock-covered. The rock cover helps insulate the ice from the sunlight and slows down the melting process. Tributaries in the lower parts are the Rudolf Glacier, Forrest Ross Glacier, Kaufmann Glacier, Haast Glacier, Hochstetter Glacier, and Ball Glacier.</p><br>
<p>The glacial terminal lake is met by the meltwater of the Murchison Glacier, which approaches from the northeast and flows alongside the Tasman Glacier outside the moraine wall. The waters of Tasman Lake flow into the Tasman River and flow south joining the Hooker River draining the proglacial lakes on the Hooker and Mueller Glaciers. The Tasman River exhibits a braided characteristic, and flows south into Lake Pukaki. They eventually flow into the Waitaki River and to the Pacific Ocean north of Oamaru.</p><br>
<h2>Recent retreat</h2><br>
<p>The glacier remained at a constant 28 km in length for all of its recorded history in the 20th century before starting its current period of rapid melting in the 1990s. Between 2000 and 2008 alone, the glacier terminus receded 3.7 km. Since the 1990s the terminus has retreated about 180 m a year on average. The glacier is now in a period of faster retreat where the rate of retreat is calculated to be between 477 to 822 m each year. It is estimated that the Tasman Glacier will eventually disappear and the terminal Tasman Lake will reach a maximum size in 10 to 19 years time. In 1973 Tasman Glacier had no terminal lake and by 2008 Tasman Lake was 7 km long, 2 km wide, and 245 m deep.</p><br>
<p>A large calving event was possibly triggered, or at least contributed to, by the 2011 Canterbury earthquake on 22 February 2011. On this day 30,000,000 metric tons to 40,000,000 metric tons of ice dropped from the terminal face of the Tasman Glacier and fell into the Tasman Lake. Boats were hit with tsunami waves of up to 3.5 m as the ice fell into the Tasman Lake under the glacier. Similar events in the past have been attributed to buoyancy effects, a result of high basal water pressures and increased lake level following heavy rainfall events.</p><br>
<h2>Access and tourism</h2><br>
<p>Tasman Glacier has a long history of tourism, with heli skiing tours offered on the upper glacier since the early 1970s. The tributary Ball Glacier was also popular for skiing, with national championships being held there in the 1930s. It has since diminished too far to be safely accessed. Similarly, Tasman Glacier&#39;s significant ice loss over the past decades has impacted tourism, with an increasing number of crevasses being exposed and not filled in by snow any more, requiring guided tours to avoid these areas, and restricting the heli skiing season to July, August and September.</p><br>
<p>The proglacial Tasman Lake is a popular destination for boat tours among the icebergs often floating in the lake. Boats are not allowed closer than 1.5 km to the 50 m tall terminal face of Tasman Glacier for safety reasons.</p><br>
<p>The Ball Shelter Track, part of the Ball Hut Route, leads along the western side of the glacier, separated from Tasman Lake by a tall moraine wall until about 6 kilometres in, where it climbs high enough for the view to open up. At that point, the rock-covered lower Tasman Glacier in the valley between the moraine walls is 2.5 km wide.</p><br>
<p>Manam, known locally as Manam Motu, is an island located in the Bismarck Sea across the Stephan Strait from Yawar on the northeast coast of mainland Papua New Guinea&#39;s Bogia District. The island is 10 kilometers wide, and was created by the activity of the Manam Volcano, one of the country’s most active. It was evacuated in 2004 and its residents resettled elsewhere in Papua New Guinea, but many have begun to return despite concerns of future volcanic activity.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Manam is a basaltic-andesitic stratovolcano, and despite remarkably symmetrical lower flanks has four distinct valleys, locally known as "avalanche valleys" due to their ability to focus avalanches and particularly pyroclastic flows generated at the summit. These valleys represent the highest-risk areas during eruptions, and, when the island was inhabited, were typically the first areas to be evacuated during heightened activity. The earliest documented eruption of Manam was in 1616.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The first recorded sighting by Europeans of Manam Island was by the Spanish navigator Iñigo Órtiz de Retes on 5 August 1545 when on board of the carrack San Juan tried to return from Tidore to New Spain.</p><br>
<h2>Eruptions and hazards</h2><br>
<p>Thirteen local residents were killed during an eruption on 3 December 1996, when pyroclastic flows reached the village of Budua.</p><br>
<p>In November 2004, a major eruption forced the emergency evacuation of over 9,000 inhabitants of the island. The eruption began October 24 but was not seen as a major threat until the wind changed pushing ash and debris towards inhabited areas. Five people died during the eruption. On December 11, the threat was downgraded due to a reduction in activity. There have been significant problems at Bogia on the mainland where the evacuees resettled in camps at Mangem, Asarumba and Potsdam.</p><br>
<p>In March 2007 the government of Papua New Guinea made a large area of land available for permanent resettlement of displaced islanders at Andarum near Bogia. Also in March 2007, three people were killed by mudslides on the northern part of the island. As of 2014, at least 2000-3000 people have returned to the island despite continued government concerns for their safety.</p><br>
<h2>Residents</h2><br>
<p>Manam Islanders have their own language called Manam Pile (literally "Manam talk"), which is spoken on Manam and the nearby Boisa Islands. Manam islanders have a reputation in Papua New Guinea for musicianship and have produced several locally renowned musicians.</p><br>
<p>Vytina  is a mountain village and a former municipality in Arcadia, Peloponnese, Greece. It is considered a traditional settlement. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Gortynia, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 139.309 km. The seat of the municipality was the village Vytina. The village is located at the foot of the mountain range Mainalo. The area produces marble, a variation called the Black of Vytina.</p><br>
<p>Vytina is 10 km east of Levidi, 15 km northeast of Dimitsana and 24 km northwest of Tripoli. The Greek National Road 74 (Tripoli - Pyrgos) passes through Vytina. The ancient Arcadian city Methydrion was located near Vytina.</p><br>
<h2>Subdivisions</h2><br>
<p>The municipal unit Vytina is subdivided into the following communities (constituent villages in brackets):</p><br>
<p>Elati</p><br>
<p>Kamenitsa (Kamenitsa, Karvouni)</p><br>
<p>Lasta (Lasta, Agridaki)</p><br>
<p>Magouliana (Magouliana, Pan)</p><br>
<p>Nymfasia</p><br>
<p>Pyrgaki (Pyrgaki, Methydrio)</p><br>
<p>Vytina (Vytina, Moni Panagias Kernitsis)</p><br>
<h2>Population history</h2><br>
<h2>People</h2><br>
<p>The father of the historian Constantine Paparrigopoulos, Dimitrios Paparrigopoulos was born in Vytina. Other important Vytiniots include the jurist Vasileios Oikonomidis, the provost marshal Ioannis Dimakopoulos, the iconographer Othon Giavopoulos and Kollias Vytiniotis.</p><br>
<p>Chicago Pile-1 , was the worlds first artificial nuclear reactor. Its construction was part of the Manhattan Project, the Allied effort to create atomic bombs during World War II. It was built by the Manhattan Projects Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago, under the west viewing stands of the original Stagg Field. The first human-made self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction was initiated in CP-1 on 2 December 1942, under the supervision of Enrico Fermi, who described the apparatus as "a crude pile of black bricks and wooden timbers".</p><br>
<p>The reactor was assembled in November 1942, by a team that included Fermi, Leo Szilard (who formulated the idea of the chain reaction), Herbert L. Anderson, Walter Zinn, Martin D. Whitaker, and George Weil. It contained 45,000 graphite blocks weighing 400 ST used as neutron moderators, and was fueled by 6 ST of uranium metal and 50 ST of uranium oxide. In the pile, some of the free neutrons produced by the natural decay of uranium were absorbed by other uranium atoms, causing nuclear fission of those atoms, and the release of additional free neutrons. Unlike most subsequent nuclear reactors, it had no radiation shielding or cooling system as it only operated at very low power – about one-half watt. The shape of the pile was intended to be roughly spherical, but as work proceeded, Fermi calculated that critical mass could be achieved without finishing the entire pile as planned.</p><br>
<p>In 1943, CP-1 was moved to Red Gate Woods, and reconfigured to become Chicago Pile-2 (CP-2). There, it was operated until 1954, when it was dismantled and buried. The stands at Stagg Field were demolished in August 1957, but the site is now a National Historic Landmark and a Chicago Landmark.</p><br>
<h2>Origins</h2><br>
<p>The idea of chemical chain reactions was first suggested in 1913 by the German chemist Max Bodenstein for a situation in which two molecules react to form not just the final reaction products, but also some unstable molecules which can further react with the original substances to cause more to react. The concept of a nuclear chain reaction was first hypothesized by the Hungarian scientist Leo Szilard on 12 September 1933. Szilard realized that if a nuclear reaction produced neutrons or dineutrons, which then caused further nuclear reactions, the process might be self-perpetuating. Szilard proposed using mixtures of lighter known isotopes which produced neutrons in copious amounts, although he did entertain the possibility of using uranium as a fuel. He filed a patent for his idea of a simple nuclear reactor the following year. The discovery of nuclear fission by German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann in 1938, followed by its theoretical explanation (and naming) by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch, opened up the possibility of creating a nuclear chain reaction with uranium or indium, but initial experiments were unsuccessful.</p><br>
<p>In order for a chain reaction to occur, fissioning uranium atoms had to emit additional neutrons to keep the reaction going. At Columbia University in New York, Enrico Fermi, John Dunning, Herbert L. Anderson, Eugene T. Booth, G. Norris Glasoe, and Francis G. Slack conducted the first nuclear fission experiment in the United States on 25 January 1939. Subsequent work confirmed that fast neutrons were indeed produced by fission. Szilard obtained permission from the head of the Physics Department at Columbia, George B. Pegram, to use a laboratory for three months, and persuaded Walter Zinn to become his collaborator. They conducted a simple experiment on the seventh floor of Pupin Hall at Columbia, using a radium-beryllium source to bombard uranium with neutrons. They discovered significant neutron multiplication in natural uranium, proving that a chain reaction might be possible.</p><br>
<p>Fermi and Szilard still believed that enormous quantities of uranium would be required for an atomic bomb, and therefore concentrated on producing a controlled chain reaction. Fermi urged Alfred O.C. Nier to separate uranium isotopes for determination of the fissile component, and on 29 February 1940, Nier separated the first U-235 isotope sample, which, after mailed to Columbia&#39;s cyclotron, Dunning confirmed to be the isolated fissile material. An initial design planned to use the U-235, but sufficient quantities still proved limited at the time. When he was working in Rome, Fermi had discovered that collisions between neutrons and neutron moderators can slow the neutrons down, and thereby make them more likely to be captured by uranium nuclei, causing the uranium to fission. Szilard suggested to Fermi that they use carbon in the form of graphite as a moderator. As a back-up plan, he considered heavy water. This contained deuterium, which would not absorb neutrons like ordinary hydrogen, and was a better neutron moderator than carbon; but heavy water was expensive and difficult to produce, and several tons of it might be needed. Fermi estimated that a fissioning uranium nucleus produced 1.73 neutrons on average. It was enough, but a careful design was called for to minimize losses. (Today the average number of neutrons emitted per fissioning uranium-235 nucleus is known to be about 2.4.)</p><br>
<p>Szilard estimated he would need about 50 ST of graphite and 5 ST of uranium. In December 1940, Fermi and Szilard met with Herbert G. MacPherson and Victor C. Hamister at National Carbon to discuss the possible existence of impurities in graphite, and the procurement of graphite of a purity that had never been produced commercially. MacPherson realized that even high quality graphite contains minute quantities of boron impurities that could make it potentially unusable as a neutron moderator in a uranium reactor, Had he not done so, they might have concluded, as the Germans did, that graphite was unsuitable for use as a neutron moderator.</p><br>
<p>Over the next two years, MacPherson, Hamister and Lauchlin M. Currie developed thermal purification techniques for the large scale production of low boron content graphite. The resulting product was designated AGOT graphite ("Acheson Graphite Ordinary Temperature") by National Carbon. With a neutron absorption cross section of 4.97 mbarns, the AGOT graphite is considered as the first true nuclear-grade graphite. By November 1942 National Carbon had shipped 255 tons of AGOT graphite to the University of Chicago, where it became the primary source of graphite to be used in the construction of Chicago Pile-1.</p><br>
<h2>Government support</h2><br>
<p>Szilard drafted a confidential letter to the President, Franklin D. Roosevelt, warning of a German nuclear weapon project, explaining the possibility of nuclear weapons, and encouraging the development of a program that could result in their creation. With the help of Eugene Wigner and Edward Teller, he approached his old friend and collaborator Albert Einstein in August 1939, and convinced him to sign the letter, lending his prestige to the proposal. The Einstein–Szilard letter resulted in the establishment of research into nuclear fission by the USA government. An Advisory Committee on Uranium was formed under Lyman J. Briggs, a scientist and the director of the National Bureau of Standards. Its first meeting on 21 October 1939, was attended by Szilard, Teller and Wigner. The scientists persuaded the Army and Navy to provide $6,000 for Szilard to purchase supplies for experiments—in particular, more graphite.</p><br>
<p>In April 1941, the National Defense Research Committee (NDRC), created a special project headed by Arthur Compton, a Nobel-Prize-winning physics professor at the University of Chicago, to report on the uranium program. Compton&#39;s report, submitted in May 1941, foresaw the prospects of developing radiological weapons, nuclear propulsion for ships, and nuclear weapons using uranium-235 or the recently discovered plutonium. In October he wrote another report on the practicality of an atomic bomb. For this report, he worked with Fermi on calculations of the critical mass of uranium-235. He also discussed the prospects for uranium enrichment with Harold Urey.</p><br>
<p>Niels Bohr and John Wheeler had theorized that heavy isotopes with odd atomic mass numbers were fissile. If so, then plutonium-239 was likely to be. In May 1941, Emilio Segrè and Glenn Seaborg at the University of California produced 28 μg of plutonium in the 60-inch cyclotron there, and found that it had 1.7 times the thermal neutron capture cross section of uranium-235. At the time only such minute quantities of plutonium-239 had been produced, in cyclotrons, and it was not possible to produce a sufficiently large quantity that way. Compton discussed with Wigner how plutonium might be produced in a nuclear reactor, and with Robert Serber about how that plutonium might be separated from uranium. His report, submitted in November, stated that a bomb was feasible.</p><br>
<p>The final draft of Compton&#39;s November 1941 report made no mention of using plutonium, but after discussing the latest research with Ernest Lawrence, Compton became convinced that a plutonium bomb was also feasible. In December, Compton was placed in charge of the plutonium project. Its objectives were to produce reactors to convert uranium to plutonium, to find ways to chemically separate the plutonium from the uranium, and to design and build an atomic bomb. It fell to Compton to decide which of the different types of reactor designs the scientists should pursue, even though a successful reactor had not yet been built. He proposed a schedule to achieve a controlled nuclear chain reaction by January 1943, and to have an atomic bomb by January 1945.</p><br>
<h2>Development</h2><br>
<p>In a nuclear reactor, criticality is achieved when the rate of neutron production is equal to the rate of neutron losses, including both neutron absorption and neutron leakage. When a uranium-235 atom undergoes fission, it releases an average of 2.4 neutrons. In the simplest case of an unreflected, homogeneous, spherical reactor, the critical radius was calculated to be:</p><br>
<p>where M is the surface area and k is the average neutron multiplication factor. The neutrons in preceding reactions will be amplified by a factor k, the second generation of fission events will produce k, the third k and so on. In order for a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction to occur, k must be at least 3 or 4 percent greater than 1. In other words, k must be greater than 1 without crossing the prompt critical threshold that would result in a rapid, exponential increase in the number of fission events.</p><br>
<p>Fermi christened his apparatus a "pile". Emilio Segrè later recalled that:</p><br>
<p>Another grant, this time of $40,000, was obtained from the S-1 Uranium Committee to purchase more materials, and in August 1941 Fermi began to plan the building of a sub-critical assembly to test with a smaller structure whether a larger one would work. The so-called exponential pile he proposed to build was 8 ft long, 8 ft wide and 11 ft high. This was too large to fit in the Pupin Physics Laboratories. Fermi recalled that:</p><br>
<p>The pile was built in September 1941 from 4 by graphite blocks and tinplate iron cans of uranium oxide. The cans were 8 by cubes. When filled with uranium oxide, each weighed about 60 lb. There were 288 cans in all, and each was surrounded by graphite blocks so the whole would form a cubic lattice structure. A radium-beryllium neutron source was positioned near the bottom. The uranium oxide was heated to remove moisture, and packed into the cans while still hot on a shaking table. The cans were then soldered shut. For a workforce, Pegram secured the services of Columbia&#39;s football team. It was the custom at the time for football players to perform odd jobs around the university. They were able to manipulate the heavy cans with ease. The final result was a disappointing k of 0.87.</p><br>
<p>Compton felt that having teams at Columbia University, Princeton University, the University of Chicago and the University of California was creating too much duplication and not enough collaboration, and he resolved to concentrate the work in one location. Nobody wanted to move, and everybody argued in favor of their own location. In January 1942, soon after the United States entered World War II, Compton decided on his own location, the University of Chicago, where he knew he had the unstinting support of university administration. Chicago also had a central location, and scientists, technicians and facilities were more readily available in the Midwest, where war work had not yet taken them away. In contrast, Columbia University was engaged in uranium enrichment efforts under Harold Urey and John Dunning, and was hesitant to add a third secret project.</p><br>
<p>Before leaving for Chicago, Fermi&#39;s team made one last attempt to build a working pile at Columbia. Since the cans had absorbed neutrons, they were dispensed with. Instead, the uranium oxide, heated to 480 &deg;F to dry it out, was pressed into cylindrical holes 3 in long and 3 in in diameter drilled into the graphite. The entire pile was then canned by soldering sheet metal around it, and the contents heated above the boiling point of water to remove moisture. The result was a k of 0.918.</p><br>
<h2>Choice of site</h2><br>
<p>In Chicago, Samuel K. Allison had found a suitable location 60 ft long, 30 ft wide and 26 ft high, sunk slightly below ground level, in a space under the stands at Stagg Field originally built as a rackets court. Stagg Field had been largely unused since the University of Chicago had given up playing American football in 1939, but the rackets courts under West Stands were still used for playing squash and handball. Leona Woods and Anthony L. Turkevich played squash there in 1940. Since it was intended for strenuous exercise, the area was unheated, and very cold in the winter. The nearby North Stands had a pair of ice skating rinks on the ground floor, which although they were unrefrigerated, seldom melted in winter. Allison used the rackets court area to construct a 7 ft experimental pile before Fermi&#39;s group arrived in 1942.</p><br>
<p>The United States Army Corps of Engineers assumed control of the nuclear weapons program in June 1942, and Compton&#39;s Metallurgical Laboratory became part of what came to be called the Manhattan Project. Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves, Jr. became director of the Manhattan Project on 23 September 1942. He visited the Metallurgical Laboratory for the first time on 5 October. Between 15 September and 15 November 1942, groups under Herbert Anderson and Walter Zinn constructed 16 experimental piles under the Stagg Field stands.</p><br>
<p>Fermi designed a new pile, which would be spherical to maximize k, which was predicted to be around 1.04, thereby achieving criticality. Leona Woods was detailed to build boron trifluoride neutron detectors as soon as she completed her doctoral thesis. She also helped Anderson locate the large number of 4 by timbers required at lumber yards in Chicago&#39;s south side. Shipments of high-purity graphite arrived, mainly from National Carbon, and high-purity uranium dioxide from Mallinckrodt in St Louis, which was now producing 30 ST a month. Metallic uranium also began arriving in larger quantities, the product of newly developed techniques.</p><br>
<p>On 25 June, the Army and the Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD) had selected a site in the Argonne Forest near Chicago for a plutonium pilot plant. This became known as Site A. 1,025 acres were leased from Cook County in August, but by September it was apparent that the proposed facilities would be too extensive for the site, and it was decided to build the pilot plant elsewhere. The subcritical piles posed little danger, but Groves felt that it would be prudent to locate a critical pile—a fully functional nuclear reactor—at a more remote site. A building at Argonne to house Fermis experimental pile was commenced, with its completion scheduled for 20 October. Due to industrial disputes, construction fell behind schedule, and it became clear the materials for Fermis new pile would be on hand before the new structure was completed. In early November, Fermi came to Compton with a proposal to build the experimental pile under the stands at Stagg Field.</p><br>
<p>The risk of building an operational reactor running at criticality in a populated area was a significant issue, as there was a danger of a catastrophic nuclear meltdown blanketing one of the United States&#39; major urban areas in radioactive fission products. But the physics of the system suggested that the pile could be safely shut down even in the event of a runaway reaction. When a fuel atom undergoes fission, it releases neutrons that strike other fuel atoms in a chain reaction. The time between absorbing the neutron and undergoing fission is measured in nanoseconds. Szilard had noted that this reaction leaves behind fission products that may also release neutrons, but do so over much longer periods, from microseconds to as long as minutes. In a slow reaction like the one in a pile where the fission products build up, these neutrons account for about three percent of the total neutron flux.</p><br>
<p>Fermi argued that by using the delayed neutrons, and by carefully controlling the reaction rates as the power is ramped up, a pile can reach criticality at fission rates slightly below that of a chain reaction relying solely on the prompt neutrons from the fission reactions. Since the rate of release of these neutrons depends on fission events taking place some time earlier, there is a delay between any power spikes and the later criticality event. This time gives the operators leeway; if a spike in the prompt neutron flux is seen, they have several minutes before this causes a runaway reaction. If a neutron absorber, or neutron poison, is injected at any time during this period, the reactor will shut down. Consequently, the reaction can be controlled with electromechanical control systems such as control rods. Compton felt this delay was enough to provide a critical margin of safety, and allowed Fermi to build Chicago Pile-1 at Stagg Field.</p><br>
<p>Compton later explained that:</p><br>
<p>Compton informed Groves of his decision at the 14 November meeting of the S-1 Executive Committee. Although Groves "had serious misgivings about the wisdom of Comptons suggestion", he did not interfere. James B. Conant, the chairman of the NDRC, was reported to have turned white. But because of the urgency and their confidence in Fermis calculations, no one objected.</p><br>
<h2>Construction</h2><br>
<p>Chicago Pile 1 was encased within a balloon so that the air inside could be replaced by carbon dioxide. Anderson had a dark gray balloon manufactured by Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company. A 25 ft cube-shaped balloon was somewhat unusual, but the Manhattan Project&#39;s AAA priority rating ensured prompt delivery with no questions asked. A block and tackle was used to haul it into place, with the top secured to the ceiling and three sides to the walls. The remaining side, the one facing the balcony from which Fermi directed the operation, was furled like an awning. A circle was drawn on the floor, and the stacking of graphite blocks began on the morning of 16 November 1942. The first layer placed was made up entirely of graphite blocks, with no uranium. Layers without uranium were alternated with two layers containing uranium, so the uranium was enclosed in graphite. Unlike later reactors, it had no radiation shielding or cooling system, as it was only intended to be operated at very low power.</p><br>
<p>The work was carried out in twelve-hour shifts, with a day shift under Zinn and a night shift under Anderson. For a work force they hired thirty high school dropouts that were eager to earn a bit of money before being drafted into the Army. They machined 45,000 graphite blocks enclosing 19,000 pieces of uranium metal and uranium oxide. The graphite arrived from the manufacturers in 4.25 by bars of various lengths. They were cut into standard lengths of 16.5 in, each weighing 19 lb. A lathe was used to drill 3.25 in holes in the blocks for the control rods and the uranium. A hydraulic press was used to shape the uranium oxide into "pseudospheres", cylinders with rounded ends. Drill bits had to be sharpened after each 60 holes, which worked out to be about once an hour. Graphite dust soon filled the air and made the floor slippery.</p><br>
<p>Another group, under Volney C. Wilson, was responsible for instrumentation. They also fabricated the control rods, which were cadmium sheets nailed to flat wooden strips, cadmium being a potent neutron absorber, and the scram line, a Manila rope that when cut would drop a control rod into the pile and stop the reaction. Richard Fox, who made the control-rod mechanism for the pile, remarked that the manual speed control that the operator had over the rods was simply a variable resistor, controlling an electric motor that would spool the clothesline wire over a pulley that also had two lead weights attached to ensure it would fail-safe and return to its zero position when released.</p><br>
<p>About two layers were laid per shift. Woods&#39; boron trifluoride neutron counter was inserted at the 15th layer. Thereafter, readings were taken at the end of each shift. Fermi divided the square of the radius of the pile by the intensity of the radioactivity to obtain a metric that counted down to one as the pile approached criticality. At the 15th layer, it was 390; at the 19th it was 320; at the 25th it was 270 and by the 36th it was only 149. The original design was for a spherical pile, but as work proceeded, it became clear that this would not be necessary. The new graphite was purer, and 6 ST of very pure metallic uranium began to arrive from the Ames Project at Iowa State University, where a team under Frank Spedding had developed a new process to produce uranium metal. Westinghouse Lamp Plant supplied 3 ST, which it produced in a rush with a makeshift process.</p><br>
<p>The 2.25 in metallic uranium cylinders, known as "Speddings eggs", were dropped in the holes in the graphite in lieu of the uranium oxide pseudospheres. The process of filling the balloon with carbon dioxide would not be necessary, and twenty layers could be dispensed with. According to Fermis new calculations, the countdown would reach 1 between the 56th and 57th layers. The resulting pile was therefore flatter on the top than on the bottom. Anderson called a halt after the 57th layer was placed. When completed, the wooden frame supported an elliptical-shaped structure, 20 ft high, 6 ft wide at the ends and 25 ft across the middle. It contained 6 ST of uranium metal, 50 ST of uranium oxide and 400 ST of graphite, at an estimated cost of $2.7 million.</p><br>
<h2>First nuclear chain reaction</h2><br>
<p>The next day, 2 December 1942, everybody assembled for the experiment. There were 49 scientists present. Although most of the S-1 Executive Committee was in Chicago, only Crawford Greenewalt was present, at Compton&#39;s invitation. Other dignitaries present included Szilard, Wigner and Spedding. Samuel Allison stood ready with a bucket of concentrated cadmium nitride, which he was to throw over the pile in the event of an emergency. The startup began at 09:54. Walter Zinn removed the zip, the emergency control rod, and secured it. Norman Hilberry stood ready with an axe to cut the scram line, which would allow the zip to fall under the influence of gravity. While Leona Woods called out the count from the boron trifluoride detector in a loud voice, George Weil, the only one on the floor, withdrew all but one of the control rods. At 10:37 Fermi ordered Weil to remove all but 13 ft of the last control rod. Weil withdrew it 6 in at a time, with measurements being taken at each step.</p><br>
<p>The process was abruptly halted by the automatic control rod reinserting itself, due to its trip level being set too low. At 11:25, Fermi ordered the control rods reinserted. He then announced that it was lunch time.</p><br>
<p>The experiment resumed at 14:00. Weil worked the final control rod while Fermi carefully monitored the neutron activity. Fermi announced that the pile had gone critical (reached a self-sustaining reaction) at 15:25. Fermi switched the scale on the recorder to accommodate the rapidly increasing electrical current from the boron trifluoride detector. He wanted to test the control circuits, but after 28 minutes, the alarm bells went off to notify everyone that the neutron flux had passed the preset safety level, and he ordered Zinn to release the zip. The reaction rapidly halted. The pile had run for about 4.5 minutes at about 0.5 watts. Wigner opened a bottle of Chianti, which they drank from paper cups.</p><br>
<p>Compton notified Conant by telephone. The conversation was in an impromptu code:</p><br>
<h2>Later operation</h2><br>
<p>On 12 December 1942 CP-1&#39;s power output was increased to 200 W, enough to power a light bulb. Lacking shielding of any kind, it was a radiation hazard for everyone in the vicinity, and further testing was continued at 0.5 W. Operation was terminated on 28 February 1943, and the pile was dismantled and moved to Site A in the Argonne Forest, now known as Red Gate Woods.</p><br>
<p>There the original materials were used to build Chicago Pile-2 (CP-2). Instead of being spherical, the new reactor was built in a cube-like shape, about 25 ft tall with a base approximately 30 ft square. It was surrounded by concrete walls 5 ft thick that acted as a radiation shielding, with overhead protection from 6 in of lead and 50 in of wood. More uranium was used, so it contained 52 ST of uranium and 472 ST of graphite. No cooling system was provided as it only ran at a few kilowatts. CP-2 became operational in March 1943, with a k of 1.055. During the war Zinn allowed CP-2 to be run around the clock, and its design was suitable for conducting experiments.</p><br>
<p>CP-2 was joined by Chicago Pile-3, the first heavy water reactor, which went critical on 15 May 1944.</p><br>
<p>The reactors were used to undertake research related to weapons, such as investigations of the properties of tritium. Wartime experiments included measuring the neutron absorption cross-section of elements and compounds. Albert Wattenberg recalled that about 10 elements were studied each month, and 75 over the course of a year. An accident involving radium and beryllium powder caused a dangerous drop in his white blood cell count that lasted for three years. As the dangers of things such as inhaling uranium oxide became more apparent, experiments were conducted on the effects of radioactive substances on laboratory test animals.</p><br>
<p>The Red Gate Woods later became the original site of Argonne National Laboratory, which replaced the Metallurgical Laboratory on 1 July 1946, with Zinn as its first director. CP-2 and CP-3 operated for ten years before they outlived their usefulness, and Zinn ordered them shut down on 15 May 1954. Their remaining usable fuel was transferred to Chicago Pile-5 at the Argonne National Laboratory&#39;s new site in DuPage County, and the CP-2 and CP-3 reactors were dismantled in 1955 and 1956. High-level nuclear waste such as fuel and heavy water were shipped to Oak Ridge, Tennessee, for disposal. The rest was encased in concrete and buried in a 40 ft trench in what is now known as the Site A/Plot M Disposal Site. It is marked by a commemorative boulder.</p><br>
<p>By the 1970s there was increased public concern about the levels of radioactivity at the site, which was used by the local residents for recreational purposes. Surveys conducted in the 1980s found strontium-90 in the soil at Plot M, trace amounts of tritium in nearby wells, and plutonium, technetium, cesium, and uranium in the area. In 1994, the United States Department of Energy and the Argonne National Laboratory yielded to public pressure and earmarked $24.7 million and $3.4 million respectively to rehabilitate the site. As part of the clean up, 500 cubic yards of radioactive waste was removed and sent to the Hanford Site for disposal. By 2002, the Illinois Department of Public Health had determined that the remaining materials posed no danger to public health.</p><br>
<h2>Significance and commemoration</h2><br>
<p>A commemorative plaque was unveiled at Stagg Field on 2 December 1952, the occasion of the tenth anniversary of CP-1 going critical. It read: The plaque was saved when the West Stands were demolished in August 1957. The site of CP-1 was designated as a National Historic Landmark on 18 February 1965.</p><br>
<p>Today the site of the old Stagg Field is occupied by the University&#39;s Regenstein Library, which was opened in 1970, and the Joe and Rika Mansueto Library, which was opened in 2011. A Henry Moore sculpture, Nuclear Energy, stands in a small quadrangle just outside the Regenstein Library. A graphite block from CP-1 can be seen at the Bradbury Science Museum in Los Alamos, New Mexico; another is on display at the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago.</p><br>
<p>The Munson-Williams-Proctor Arts Institute  is a regional fine arts center founded in 1919 and located in Utica, New York. The institute has three program divisions:</p><br>
<p>Museum of art</p><br>
<p>Performing arts</p><br>
<p>School of art</p><br>
<h2>Museum of art</h2><br>
<p>The museum of art has a substantial permanent collection of internationally recognized works. They are exhibited in the Munson-Williams-Proctor Arts Institute Museum of Art Building. It is an International-style building designed by architect Philip Johnson and completed in 1960. A model of the building was exhibited in the United States Pavilion at the Brussels Worlds Fair of 1958. It is a 60,000 sqft square and supported by eight external ferro-concrete piers, or two on each side. The exterior structural members are clad in bronze and "black" Canadian granite. The windowless cube is set above windowed office areas recessed in a dry moat, giving a "floating" effect. The interior features a two story central courtyard, illuminated by a skylight, known as the Edward Wales Root Sculpture Court. It also holds an auditorium seating 271. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2010.</p><br>
<p>Next-door is a Victorian-era Italianate mansion called Fountain Elms, listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972. It houses the MWPAI decorative arts collection. It is connected to the Museum of Art building by an education wing built in 1995.</p><br>
<p>The museum has an extensive collection of European and American art. A highlight of the permanent collection is the first of the two original sets of Thomas Cole&#39;s famous series of paintings titled The Voyage of Life: The second set is at the National Gallery Washington, DC.</p><br>
<h2>PrattMWP</h2><br>
<p>The institute also has a program called Pratt at Munson-Williams-Proctor (MWP) which allows students to study for two years in Utica, New York, called a "Foundations Program", before completing their Bachelor of Fine Arts degree at Pratt Institute&#39;s main campus in Brooklyn, New York. PrattMWP is accredited by the National Association of Schools of Art and Design, Middle States Association, and New York State Education Department.</p><br>
<p>Gergesa, also Gergasa or the Country of the Gergesenes, is a place on the eastern  side of the Sea of Galilee located at some distance to the ancient Decapolis cities of Gadara and Gerasa. It is mentioned in some ancient manuscripts of the Gospel of Matthew as the place where the Miracle of the Swine took place, an exorcism performed by Jesus who drove demons out of two possessed men and into a herd of pigs. All three Synoptic Gospels mention this miracle, but only Matthew writes about two possessed men instead of just one, and only some manuscripts of his Gospel name the location as Gergesa, while the other copies, as well as all versions of Luke and Mark, mention either Gadara or Gerasa .</p><br>
<p>Some are of the opinion that Gergesa was the country of the ancient Girgashites; but it is more probable that Gergesenes was introduced by Origen upon mere conjecture; as before him most copies seem to have read Gadarenes, agreeable to the parallel passages and the ancient Syriac version. In any event, the "country of the Gergesenes/Gadarenes/Gerasenes" in the New Testament Gospels refers to some location on the eastern shore of the Sea of Galilee. The name is derived from either a lakeside village, Gergesa, the next larger city, Gadara, or the best-known city in the region, Gerasa.</p><br>
<h2>Interpretations</h2><br>
<p>Gergesenes means "those who come from pilgrimage or fight."</p><br>
<p>Many New Testament manuscripts refer to the "Country of the Gadarenes" or "Gerasenes" rather than the Gergesenes. Both Gerasa and Gadara were cities to the east of the Sea of Galilee and the River Jordan. They were both Gentile cities filled with citizens who were culturally more Greek than Semitic; this would account for the pigs in the biblical account. Gerasa and Gadara are accounted for in historical accounts (by writers such as Pliny the Elder and Josephus) and by archaeological research. Today they are the modern towns of Jerash and Umm Qais.</p><br>
<p>A third city, Hippos, was similar in character to Gadara and Gerasa, and it may fit the biblical account even better. It was located on the shore of the Sea of Galilee, whereas Gerasa and Gadara were several kilometers south-east of it. Hippos, Gerasa, and Gadara were all counted in the Decapolis, an informal grouping of Greco-Roman cities just south of the ancient city of Caesarea Philippi.</p><br>
<h2>Identification with Kursi</h2><br>
<p>Byzantine Christian monks venerated a site situated a few kilometres north of Hippos on the lake shore, as the location of the miracle. It is the only place fitting Matthew&#39;s description, since it contains the only "steep bank" in the area descending all the way to the shore of the lake. The site became apparently known since at least the Early Muslim period as Kursya, the Aramaic word for "chair", and later as Kursi, a word with the same meaning in Arabic, The monks built a walled monastic complex there and made it a destination for Christian pilgrims. That monastery was destroyed by Sassanid Persian armies in 614 CE, partially rebuilt, and finally levelled by the 749 Galilee earthquake. The remains of the monastery can be visited in the Kursi National Park. Christian artifacts from Kursi can be viewed at the Golan Archaeological Museum.</p><br>
<p>Independence Rock is a large granite rock, approximately 130 ft high, 1,900 ft long and 850 ft wide, in southwestern Natrona County, Wyoming, along Wyoming Highway 220. During the middle of the 19th century, the rock was a prominent and well-known landmark on the Oregon, Mormon, and California emigrant trails. Many of these emigrants carved their names on the rock, and it was described by early missionary and explorer Father Pierre-Jean De Smet in 1840 as the Register of the Desert. The site was designated a National Historic Landmark on January 20, 1961. It is now part of Independence Rock State Historic Site, owned and operated by the state of Wyoming.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The rock is a large rounded monolith of Archean granite typical of the surrounding region and is an isolated peak at the southeast end of the Granite Mountains. Its appearance is somewhat like the rounded Enchanted Rock of Texas or Uluru in Australia (formerly known as Ayers Rock), although smaller in size. It is located in the high plateau region of central Wyoming, north of the Sentinel Rocks ridge and adjacent to the Sweetwater River. It is accessible from a rest area on Wyoming Highway 220, approximately 20 mi northeast of Muddy Gap and 60 mi south-west of Casper.</p><br>
<p>There have been several theories regarding how the rock was carved. One explanation that comes from The History Channel states that several stonecarvers set up shop on the rock and charged a small fee to carve names. This would explain the fact that some names appear to be from the same hand and are professional looking as well.</p><br>
<p>Independence rock names 1.jpgPhotograph of names carved on Independence Rock, particularly of R. McCord in 1850</p><br>
<p>Independence rock names 2.jpgPhotograph of names carved on Independence Rock, particularly of W.R.R. Thompson, W. Pierce, J. Ware and J.S.O. Ward in 1861</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Fremont carved a large cross into the rock monolith, which was blasted off the rock on July 4, 1847 by some among hundreds of California and Oregon emigrants who had gathered on the site. Some Protestants considered the cross Fremont carved to be a symbol of the Pope and Catholicism. John Frémont was actually a member of the United States Episcopal Church.</p><br>
<p>On July 4, 1862, Independence Rock was the site of Wyoming&#39;s first Masonic Lodge meeting.</p><br>
<p>Silba  is an island in Croatia with an area of 15 km,</p><br>
<p>northern Dalmatia, south-east of Lošinj, between the islands of Premuda and Olib. It has a Mediterranean climate with 2570 hours a year of sunshine. Most summer days are hot, bright and clear with light westerly Maestral wind cooling the island in the afternoons.</p><br>
<p>Silba has an area 15 km² in the shape of number 8, with the village of Silba located at the narrowest point in the middle. It takes only around 10 minutes to walk the 600 m from the north-eastern harbour of Mul to the south-western harbour of Žalić (Zhaleech).</p><br>
<p>Officially, Silba&#39;s population is 292, but it varies seasonally; from a few hundred, mainly pensioners, in the winter, to several thousand during summer months. Many have jobs and properties on the mainland. There is also an influx of tourists during the summer months as tourism is now the main economic activity on the island. The whole island is a pedestrian zone, no traffic is allowed with the exception of vehicles supplying the local businesses.</p><br>
<p>Zadar is Silba&#39;s mainland administrative center; it is part of the Zadar County.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The island has numerous small beaches and coves. The main public beach Sutorišće (Sotoreeshche), located close to the harbour of Mul, has very clear shallow waters with sandy bottom. On Žalić, there are a number of pebbly beaches and a pier. Ships carrying passenger and commercial traffic dock here.</p><br>
<p>There are a number of coves outside the village that can be reached by footpaths. On the southern side of the island, at walking distances of about 30–45 minutes, are:</p><br>
<p>Vele Stene (Large Rocks), the only point on the island where the shores are steep and rocky.</p><br>
<p>Port Sv. Ante, favoured with yachtsmen because it is protected from major winds.</p><br>
<p>One can also view a small chapel on the side of the bay.</p><br>
<p>Dobre Vode, a beach with shallow sandy bottom.</p><br>
<p>Nozdre, a big cove with characteristic flat rock formations cut out by the sea.</p><br>
<p>On the north side of the village is the highest point on Silba, Varh (86m). The northern shore is less accessible than the southern due to rocky shores, however, there is a path leading north out of the village to the small port of Papranica. Further on along the path, about an hours walk from the main village, is a cove Pernastica which is considered one of the nicest coves on the island. It faces westwards towards the sunset and has a long shallow sandy bottom.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The old name for this island is Selbo. Its supposed to come from the Latin word "Silva", meaning "forest". The island Silba is mentioned in historical records in the 9th century. In 827, it belonged to the Zadar county. In 1073, in the last year of Petar Krešimirs reign, probably at the request of his sister Cika, the first nun of St. Maria in Zadar, the county donated the island to the monastery St. Maria, at the ceremony of sacrament of their church (some say this happened in 1027.). Later, the island fell into the hands of the Venetian authorities, which sold it to captain Fani Soppe for 12,350 ducats.</p><br>
<p>It is not known how it later came into the ownership of Venetian family Morosini. Silba was held by family Morosini until the first quarter of 19th century. As it was too far to govern and receive tax on yield in nature they agreed with inhabitants of Silba in 1770 to receive each year 2000 Venetian lira in rent. Silbans called this rent četvrtina (quarter), as it amounted to quarter of the land&#39;s yields, which is what serfs elsewhere also gave to their masters.</p><br>
<p>In 1838, for 28,500 Austrian lira, family Morosini sold the island to Marko Ragusin from Veli Lošinj, who returned wealthy from United States.</p><br>
<p>As Silbans paid rent to previous owner in currency, they assumed they will do the same to the new landowner, but since he lived in Lošinj, near to Silba, he refused and demanded a quarter of lands yield in crop. A lawsuit ensued which lasted for 13 years when Ragusin finally decided to sell the island to these same inhabitants who bought it, each paying proportionally to the size of their plot, in total 5,025 bavarian thalers. On 19 March 1852 ownership of the island by inhabitants was registered. It became the islands main holiday, day of St. Joseph.</p><br>
<p>In the 18th century Silba had a fleet 38 sailing boats with three masts called Manzere of 220 Mt and 60 sailing boats two masts called Kastrere of 63 Mt. The fleet was destroyed by the French at the beginning of the 19th century. The economic benefits to the island from sailing boats led to general well being on the island. Old local saying says: "Silba zlatom siva, i u njoj se raj uživa", that is: "Silba shines with gold, on it heavenly enjoyment".</p><br>
<p>In the olden days there was a custom of "village king" elections. The king would get elected on St. Stephens Day (26 December) and his rule would last until Three Kings (6 January). During his twelve-day rule, he would preside, with crown on his head, surrounded by twelve councillors, over village gatherings and dealt justice. His task was to name the village head, head and members of village guards; close the previous years budget and plan the next years. He would give verdict on complaints and disputes that have accumulated during the year. This custom died out in the first quarter of the 19th century. The kings crown still exists in the treasury of the parish church.</p><br>
<p>In 1943 Silba was the scene of a naval action during the Adriatic Campaign of World War II.</p><br>
<p>The Magnolia Hotel  is a 29-story, Beaux-Arts style, upscale hotel in the Main Street District of downtown Dallas, Texas, that for many years was the tallest building in the state after surpassing the Adolphus Hotel. The structure is a Dallas Landmark and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The building, which opened next door to the Adolphus Hotel in August 1922 at a cost of US $4 million, was originally the headquarters for the Magnolia Petroleum Company. In 1934, the company erected its trademark neon Pegasus on the buildings roof (the Pegasus logo later became the logo of Mobil Oil who merged with Magnolia Petroleum in 1959) to celebrate the American Petroleum Institutes annual meeting, held in Dallas for the first time. The rotating winged horse came to represent the city of Dallas and became one of its most recognizable and endearing landmarks, even after the building became obscured by much larger skyscrapers (the neon Pegasus can now only be seen in the downtown skyline approaching from the south).</p><br>
<p>By 1974, however, Pegasus stopped rotating due to mechanical problems and in 1977, the Mobil Oil Company moved their headquarters out of the aging building and the property was sold to the city of Dallas. The building was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1978.</p><br>
<p>The building was purchased by Denver, Colorado developers in 1997 and was converted into the luxury 330-room Magnolia Hotel.</p><br>
<p>In 1999, in preparation for Dallas&#39;s Millennium Celebration, Pegasus was taken down to be completely restored. However, the sign was beyond repair and a new sign was recreated from scratch. At midnight on 1 January 2000, the new Pegasus, complete with rotation, was lit for the first time. A copy of the original sign, which sat atop a Mobil Oil station in the Casa Linda neighborhood of Dallas for many decades, is now on display at the Old Red Museum.</p><br>
<p>Langadia  is a mountain village and a former municipality in Arcadia, Peloponnese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Gortynia, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 79.475 km. The seat of the municipality was the village Langadia. It is considered a traditional settlement and is situated on a mountain slope, at about 1000 m elevation. It is 5 km east of Lefkochori, 10 km north of Dimitsana and 36 km northwest of Tripoli. The Greek National Road 74  passes through the village.</p><br>
<p>The village has a school, a church, a post office, and a square. It is known for its local weaving mill. Langadia used to be famous in Greece mainly about its builders (called pelekanoi), that made stone-built houses all over the Peloponnese peninsula, and especially in Mani. Kanellos Deligiannis, one of the many heroes of the Greek War of Independence against the Turks in 1821, was born here.</p><br>
<h2>Subdivisions</h2><br>
<p>The municipal unit Langadia is subdivided into the following communities (constituent villages in brackets):</p><br>
<p>Langadia (Langadia, Agios Athanasios, Agios Nikolaos, Kaloneri, Pteria, Xerovouni)</p><br>
<p>Lefkochori (Lefkochori, Fouskari, Touthoa)</p><br>
<h2>Population history</h2><br>
<p>1949: 3,333</p><br>
<p>1981: 1,188 (village)</p><br>
<p>1991: 671 (village), 1,993 (municipality)</p><br>
<p>2001: 704 (village), 1,363 (municipality)</p><br>
<p>2011: 355 (village), 504 (community), 636 (municipal unit)</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>Langadia is located in central Peloponnese and has a Mediterranean climate with hot and dry summers and milder winters.</p><br>
<h2>Photo gallery</h2><br>
<p>The Mohawk Trail began as a Native American trade route which connected Atlantic tribes with tribes in Upstate New York and beyond. It followed the Millers River, Deerfield River and crossed the Hoosac Range, in the area that is now northwestern Massachusetts.</p><br>
<p>Today the Mohawk Trail is a part of Routes 2 and 2A. It follows much of the original Indian trail, from Athol, Massachusetts to Williamstown, Massachusetts, for about 69 mi, and passes through the communities of Orange, Erving, Gill, Greenfield, Shelburne, Buckland, Charlemont, Savoy, Florida and North Adams. The Berkshire mountains are clearly visible from several points.</p><br>
<p>The modern day Mohawk Trail is considered one of the most beautiful drives in Massachusetts. There are numerous points of interest along the way, including many scenic viewpoints, roadside attractions and gift shops. Of particular note is the Hail To The Sunrise Statue at Mohawk Park, which features a tribute to Native American heritage. A portion of the trail parallels the Deerfield River for several miles, and passes through the village of Shelburne Falls, and the Bridge of Flowers. The route crosses the Connecticut River via the historic French King Bridge at a height of 140 feet. The road reaches a high elevation of 2272 feet at Whitcomb Summit. On the western side of the summit there is the popular hairpin turn and lookout, overlooking the city of North Adams and the Taconic Mountains. On the eastern side, the highway descends steeply eastward from Whitcomb Summit down the slope of the Hoosac Range following the Cold River to the Deerfield River. Notable features include the infamous Dead Man’s Curve.</p><br>
<p>A six-mile section of the Mohawk Trail was severely damaged by Hurricane Irene in August 2011. A considerable portion of the road is surrounded by the Mohawk Trail State Forest, a 6,400 acre forest, known for its camping, and occasional encounters with bobcats and black bears. Within this area there is substantial acreage of old growth forest containing many of the tallest trees in Massachusetts as verified by the Eastern Native Tree Society.</p><br>
<p>The route passes close to Vermont&#39;s southern border, and alternate routes travel north into Vermont to Harriman Reservoir and Ball Mountain State Park. The western terminus in Williamstown provides access to Mount Greylock, USA Route 7, and New York State Route 2.</p><br>
<p>A portion of the route, running through Florida, Savoy, and Charlemont, was added to the National Register of Historic Places on April 3, 1973.</p><br>
<p>Palilula  is an urban municipality of the city of Belgrade. It has the largest area of all municipalities of Belgrade. The core of Palilula is close to the center of the city, but the municipality also includes sparsely populated land left of the Danube.</p><br>
<h2>Neighborhood</h2><br>
<h3>Location</h3><br>
<p>Palilula is located east of Terazije in downtown Belgrade. Like most of Belgrade&#39;s neighborhoods it has no firm boundaries and is roughly bordered by the Ruzveltova street and the municipality and neighborhood of Zvezdara on the east, the neighborhood of Hadžipopovac in its own municipality on the north, the neighborhood and municipality of Stari Grad and Jevremovac on the northwest (Jevremovac actually belongs to the neighborhood of Palilula, but administratively is part of Stari Grad), and the Tašmajdan and Bulevar kralja Aleksandra on the south, bordering the municipality of Vračar.</p><br>
<h3>Population</h3><br>
<p>Six local communities, sub-municipal administrative units, which make up the neighborhood of Palilula had a population of 36,216 in 1981, 35,579 in 1991, 34,559 in 2002 and 26,942 in 2011. Palilula in the narrowest sense (local communites of Stara Palilula and Starina Novak, exluding the neighborhoods of Tašmajda, Hadžipopovac, Profesorska Kolonija and Bogoslovija) had a population of 12,638 in 1981, 12,178 in 1991, 11,590 in 2002 and 9,817 in 2011.</p><br>
<h3>History</h3><br>
<p>First houses in the area were built in the 16th century. In the direction from todays Tašmajdan and Cvijićeva street there were gardens, vineyards, pastures but also mills and summer houses of the wealthier citizens of Belgrade. The neighborhood originated in the first half of the 18th century, when the Habsburg Monarchy occupied northern Serbia 1717–1739. The settlement, built as an outer suburb of Belgrade, was originally named Karlstadt and was known for agriculture and skilled crafts and was considered as the most beautiful part of Belgrade at that time. In the early 19th century, it became overwhelmingly populated by the Serbs and was described as "the village one quarter of the hour walk" away from Belgrade. In 1840, villagers of Palilula rejected the regulatory plan of Belgrade, on the basis that projected new streets would be too wide, and later even tried to split from the municipality of Belgrade because of the city governments low funding for the village. However, in the late 19th century Palilula became part of the continuously built-up area of Belgrade. The neighborhood was mostly residential, with commercial facilities closer to the center of Belgrade. When Belgrade was divided into six quarters in 1860, Palilula was one of them. By the census of 1883 it became the most populous one in Belgrade with 7,318 inhabitants, and that number grew to 10,563 in 1890.</p><br>
<h3>Characteristics</h3><br>
<p>A section of Palilula is dedicated to the hajduk Starina Novak. Features bearing his name include the street, a local community, an elementary school founded in 1922 and a park. Area occupied by the park today, bounded by the streets of Starine Novaka, Cvijićeva and Dalmatinska, was named Starina Novak Square until 1954. In October 2017 city administration announced that a monument to Starina Novak will be erected in the park.</p><br>
<p>Area bounded by the streets of Stanoja Glavaša, Dalmatinska, Starine Novaka and Kneza Danila was, for the most part, occupied by the complex of the IKL factory. The complex was demolished and in 2015 construction of the residential and commercial neighborhood of "Central Garden" began. Apart from the commercial and business sections, it will have 400 apartments. In November 2017 a construction of the 16-storey "Business Garden Tower" was announced, with the deadline of 18 months.</p><br>
<h3>Name</h3><br>
<p>The name Palilula comes from the expression pali lulu which in English means light a pipe. One anecdote goes back to times when Belgrade and Serbia were occupied by the Ottoman Empire and Palilula was the area where most crops were, so Turkish rulers banned smoking due to a few instances of accidentally setting crops on fire. In the late summer and early autumn when all the crops had been harvested, the smoking ban was lifted and locals announced this by calling neighbours, letting them know that pipes might be lit. Another explanation comes from the time of Prince Miloš Obrenović&#39;s rule; he banned smoking in Belgrade so people could only smoke outside the city gates.</p><br>
<h2>Municipality</h2><br>
<h3>Area</h3><br>
<p>The area of Palilula is generally the north of Belgrade. It is the northernmost of all Belgrade&#39;s municipalities and the easternmost of all urban municipalities. It is located on both banks of the Danube, which divides it in two: Šumadija section (on the right bank) and Banat section (on the left bank).</p><br>
<p>Šumadija section borders the municipalities of Stari Grad to the west, Vračar and Zvezdara to the south and Grocka to the extreme southeast. It also has a river border on the Danube to the province of Vojvodina (Municipality of Pančevo).</p><br>
<p>Banat section has no land borders to the other Belgrade municipalities, but has a river border on the Danube to the municipalities of Zemun and Stari Grad. The Danube also forms a complete western border to the rest of the Syrmia region in Vojvodina (municipality of Stara Pazova), while the river Tamiš is the eastern border (municipalities of Pančevo and Opovo). On the extreme north, Palilula borders the municipality of Zrenjanin (village of Čenta on the Karaš canal which connects the Danube and the Tamiš).</p><br>
<h3>Geography</h3><br>
<p>Šumadija section marks the northernmost point of Šumadija with Karaburma headland extending into the Danube. The prominent features in this part are the hills of Karaburma and Milićevo brdo, the spa of Višnjička Banja and the peninsula (formerly an island) Ada Huja.</p><br>
<p>Banat section is the extreme southwestern part of Banat region, known as Pančevački Rit. A 400 km&sup2; large, flat, marshy floodplain of the Danube and Tamiš, it has been drained since 1945 but still has many features of a swamp, including slow, meandering and flooding streams (Vizelj, Mokri Sebeš, Jojkićev Dunavac, Dunavac, etc.) and marshy bogs (Sebeš, Veliko Blato, Široka Bara). An island of Kožara is located on the Danube, and is the projected starting point of the planned, much larger, artificial island of Čaplja. The spa of Ovčanska Banja is also located here. The area close to the Danube is heavily forested.</p><br>
<h3>History and administration</h3><br>
<p>The municipality was created in 1956. On January 3, 1957 the municipality of Karaburma was annexed to it, while in 1965 the municipality of Krnjača (with entire Pančevački Rit) also administratively joined Palilula.</p><br>
<p>Presidents of the Municipal Assembly:</p><br>
<p>1997–2000: Gordana Todić (b. 1955)</p><br>
<p>2000–October 21, 2004: Milan Marković (b. 1970)</p><br>
<p>October 21, 2004 – June 18, 2012: Danilo Bašić (b. 1973)</p><br>
<p>June 18, 2012 – June 6, 2016: Stojan Nikolić (b. 1976)</p><br>
<p>June 6, 2016–present: Aleksandar Jovičić (b. 1976)</p><br>
<h3>Dunavski Venac and Čenta</h3><br>
<p>The idea of separating the area of former municipality of Krnjača start gaining momentum in the 2000s, this time under the name of Dunavski Venac. As procedure in the city statute provides that the municipal assembly (in this case, of Palilula) needs to start the motion in the city assembly, after years of public agitation, the municipal assembly of Palilula agreed to do so in summer 2005. However it did not officially do so, and the organization for the separation of Dunavski Venac announced it will go to court.</p><br>
<p>The village of Čenta in the Vojvodina&#39;s municipality of Zrenjanin is located on the northern border of the municipality of Palilula. From time to time local residents have asked for Čenta to be annexed to the City of Belgrade. The majority of the population work in the territory of Belgrade and until recently, one regular bus line of Belgrade City public transportation connected Čenta to Belgrade.</p><br>
<h3>Demographics</h3><br>
<p>With a population of 173,521 inhabitants, according to the 2011 census results, Palilula is the third most populous municipality of Belgrade (after Novi Beograd and Čukarica), but the growth of population, as in the rest of Belgrade, is slowing. The fastest-growing population in the municipality is still the suburb of Borča.</p><br>
<h3>Ethnic structure</h3><br>
<p>According to the 2002 Census of population:</p><br>
<p>Serbs=135,586 (86.97%)</p><br>
<p>Romani=3,897 (2.50%)</p><br>
<p>Yugoslavs=2,279 (1.46%)</p><br>
<p>Montenegrins=1,858 (1.19%)</p><br>
<p>Macedonians=1,035 (0.66%)</p><br>
<p>Croats=931 (0.59%)</p><br>
<p>Gorani=836 (0.53%)</p><br>
<p>Muslims=823 (0.52%)</p><br>
<p>Romanians=781 (0.50%), mainly in Ovča</p><br>
<h3>Neighborhoods and settlements</h3><br>
<p>Neighborhoods of urban Palilula on the right bank of the Danube:</p><br>
<p>Neighborhoods of urban Palilula on the left bank of the Danube:</p><br>
<p>Settlements of suburban Palilula on the right bank of the Danube:</p><br>
<p>Slanci</p><br>
<p>Veliko Selo</p><br>
<p>Settlements and neighborhoods of suburban Palilula on the left bank of the Danube:</p><br>
<p>Note: Borča and Ovča are classified as urban settlements (towns).</p><br>
<p>Neighborhoods of Borča:</p><br>
<p>Neighborhoods of Padinska Skela:</p><br>
<h3>Economy and transportation</h3><br>
<p>Industry and adjoining economic activities are located mostly along the right bank of the Danube. It includes the highly industrialized neighborhoods of Viline Vode (TEMPO cash-and-carry center, several gravel and sand extracting companies on the Danube&#39;s bank, Beograd railway, Centroprom, Martez, Tehnohemija, Jugopapir, Duga, the Avala cardboard factory, Balkan, the eastern part of the port of Belgrade and the railway station Beograd-Dunav) and Ada Huja (hangars and companies for building and construction, including a series of concrete plants and gravel and aggregates storing and treating facilities, paper and cardboard factory Avala-Ada, furniture factory Novi Dom, gravel storages of Tembo and DV Trade, etc.). It also includes a series of brickworks which occupy extensive areas of the northern ridge of the Field of Višnjica (Polet, Trudbenik, Jedinstvo, Kozara, Balkan, Rekord). There is also an extensive industrial zone in Krnjača and agricultural industry in Padinska Skela.</p><br>
<p>Palilula is crisscrossed by some of the major railroads in Belgrade area: Zrenjaninski put, Pančevački put, Višnjička street, Slanački put, etc. Belgrade&#39;s only bridge over the Danube, Pančevo Bridge (with railway) is located in Palilula.</p><br>
<p>Intensive agricultural production has developed in Banat section and eastern areas around Veliko Selo and Slanci, producing large amounts of food (grains, fruits, vegetables, dairy products, etc.) for the population of Belgrade. Palilula has the largest agricultural area of all municipalities of Belgrade. It covers an area of 298 square kilometers, or 66,5% of the entire municipal territory.</p><br>
<p>Palilula Greenmarket (Paliluska pijaca) is a small market in the neighborhood of Palilula, along the 27. marta Street, below the Tašmajdan. In November 2017 it was closed as the construction of the combined shopping center, which would partially include the modernized greenmarket, will begin. Some of the market stalls have been placed on the open, at the plateau near the Tašmajdan Sports and Recreation Center in the Ilije Garašanina Street, until the works are finished. The estimated length of the reconstruction is 18 months.</p><br>
<h3>Culture, education and sports</h3><br>
<p>Urban Palilula hosts some of the most important faculties within Belgrade University: the Technical Faculty, the Faculty of Law and the Mining and Geology Faculty. Also, the building of Radio Television of Serbia, St. Mark&#39;s Church, Tašmajdan Park, Pionir Hall for sports, and the stadium of the OFK Belgrade soccer team are all located in the municipality.</p><br>
<p>Park "Đuro Strugar" is located between the streets Mitropolita Petra, Braće Grim, Jaše Prodanovića and Čarlija Čaplina, which is effectively split in two by the park. It is situated north of the "Rade Končar" school of electrotechnics and west of the Pionir Ice Hall in the Hall Aleksandar Nikolić complex. The park have a children&#39;s playground and basketball court and has been renovated in May 2017.</p><br>
<h3>Tourism</h3><br>
<p>The spas of Višnjička Banja and Ovčanska Banja are not used or developed enough. Belgrade&#39;s largest kart racing track is located in Ada Huja. The future artificial island of Čaplja on the Danube is planned as a modern entertainment park, with aqua parks, golf courses, etc.</p><br>
<h2>International cooperation</h2><br>
<p>Palilula is twinned with following cities and municipalities:</p><br>
<p>Faiakes, Greece</p><br>
<p>El Altar or Kapak Urku  is an extinct volcano on the western side of Sangay National Park in Ecuador, 170 km south of Quito. Spaniards named it so because it resembled two nuns and four friars listening to a bishop around a church altar. In older English sources it is also called The Altar.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The mountain consists of a large stratovolcano of Pliocene-Pleistocene age with a caldera breached to the west. Inca legends report that the top of Altar collapsed after seven years of activity in about 1460, but the caldera is considered to be much older than this by geologists. Nine major peaks over 5,000 m form a horseshoe-shaped ridge about 3 km across, surrounding a central basin that contains a crater lake at about 4,200 m, known as Laguna Collanes or Laguna Amarilla.</p><br>
<h2>Access and recreation</h2><br>
<p>El Altar is perhaps the most technically demanding climb in Ecuador. December through February are the best months to attempt an ascent. Much more accessible is the hike to the lake within the caldera of the mountain. From Riobamba, one takes a bus for about an hour to Candelaria and then checks in at the ranger station, where nationals pay $2 and foreigners $10 to enter the Sangay park. About 4–7 hours of an extremely muddy trail (knee-high rubber boots are recommended) leaves one at the refuge belonging to Hacienda Releche, which can be rented for $12/night. The refuge has many beds, a kitchen, and even hot water. To hike to the lake is another 2 hours from the refuge across a valley and up a steep hill.</p><br>
<h2>List of peaks</h2><br>
<p>The nine peaks of El Altar, starting with the highest summit on the south side and proceeding counterclockwise:</p><br>
<p>Fort Caspar was a military post of the United States Army in present-day Wyoming, named after 2nd Lieutenant Caspar Collins, a USA Army officer who was killed in the 1865 Battle of the Platte Bridge Station against the Lakota and Cheyenne. Founded in 1859 along the banks of the North Platte River as a trading post and toll bridge on the Oregon Trail, the post was later taken over by the Army and named Platte Bridge Station to protect emigrants and the telegraph line against raids from Lakota and Cheyenne in the ongoing wars between those nations and the United States. The site of the fort, near the intersection of 13th Street and Wyoming Boulevard in Casper, Wyoming, is listed in the National Register of Historic Places and is now owned and operated by the City of Casper as the Fort Caspar Museum and Historic Site.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The area where Platte Bridge Station was located had been the site of various temporary Army encampments over a period of years before the establishment of the fort, or "station" itself. The fort was located on the south side of the North Platte, near the western edge of present-day Casper, at one several local points where the Emigrant Trail crossed from the south side to the north side of the river. In 1847, during the first Mormon wagon train to present-day Utah, Brigham Young commissioned a ferry at the site for later emigrants. The ferry consisted of cottonwood dugout canoes and planking for a deck, with two oars and a rudder. On June 19, Young named nine men to remain to operate the ferry while the remainder of the party continued the journey westward. A group of Mormons returned to the site each summer between 1847 and 1852 to operate the ferry. The ferry was moved to a different spot on the North Platte in North Casper in 1849. It was eventually replaced with a rope-and-pulley system that could make the crossing in five minutes.</p><br>
<p>In following years, trader John Baptiste Richard established a trading post several miles downriver of the crossing. The USA Army established its first presence in the area in 1855, erecting Fort Clay near Richard&#39;s trading post. In 1859, when the site was part of the Nebraska Territory, Louis Guinard built a competing bridge at the trading post, called the Platte Bridge Station, at the site of the old Mormon Ferry crossing. From 1860–1861, the Pony Express operated a station at the site.</p><br>
<p>By the middle 1860s, the increasing presence of emigrants and other white settlers in the region began to cause friction with the Lakota and Cheyenne. In response, and partly to protect the new telegraph line, the Army began increasing its presence in the region in 1861 by sending a detachment to guard Guinard&#39;s bridge. Many of these troops, who created a series of "stations" along the Oregon trail, were from various state units raised during the Civil War. In 1862 the Army used the buildings at Platte Bridge station while building and occupying Ft. Caspar.</p><br>
<p>Guinard, a naturalized USA citizen, born in Quebec around 1820 or 1821 had hired his nephew of the same name - Louis P. Guinard, also born in Quebec in 1840 - to come and help build this bridge. Louis P. came and worked for his uncle about three years, becoming a naturalized USA citizen in 1863. He worked on the actual building of the bridge as well as keeping his uncles financial records. Louis Guinard the uncle, fell from the bridge on June 6, 1865 and drowned, leaving the property to his nephew Louis P. Guinard, who took possession on July 15 of 1865. The will was discovered in 1866 and Louis P Guinard stated that he was advised by Major Bullock, sutler at Ft. Laramie, that the will left him as sole owner of the property and that he should remain and hold possession of it. The USA troops occupied Guinards buildings for three years during the Civil War. Louis P. Guinard stated that one of the officers promised him $1000 for use of the said buildings but he never received any payment. The bridge was later destroyed by Indians when the troops left in 1865, and with hundreds of Indians appearing on the opposite bank of the river, Guinard felt he had no choice but to leave for the protection of himself and his family. They had gone no more than 4 or 5 miles before he could tell from the smoke columns that the Indians were burning everything. Guinard had left his will in the safekeeping of Major Bullock at Ft. Laramie, having no way at the time to get it probated or secured in a bank. He later filed claim to be compensated for Indian depredations but Major Bullock told him the will was lost or destroyed. Unable to produce the will, the case dragged on in the courts for more than 25 years before it was finally abandoned and Guinard was never compensated for his losses.</p><br>
<h3>Battle of the Platte Bridge Station</h3><br>
<p>In July 1865, accompanied by survivors of the Sand Creek Massacre which occurred the previous November as part of the Colorado War, a party of several thousand Cheyenne and Sioux approached Platte Bridge Station from the north intending to attack the soldiers camped there and destroy the 1,000 ft bridge. They had previously scouted the area and selected it because the soldiers there were not in the small trading post stockade of 14-foot pine logs but camped in tents. Initially only a small party of Indians showed themselves to the troops, the remainder of the Indians remaining concealed. By the afternoon of July 25, however, when a large raiding party had driven off a number of horses and forced the pursuing cavalry troopers to expend much ammunition, the station had permanent structures and a mountain howitzer of the 11th Ohio Cavalry covered the approaches to the bridge.</p><br>
<p>Late that night a detachment of 14 men of Company I, 3rd USA Volunteer Infantry led by Capt. Adam Smith Leib, escorted by 1st Lt. Henry C. Bretney and six (some accounts say 10) troopers of Company G, 11th Ohio Volunteer Cavalry, arrived from Sweetwater Station en route to Fort Laramie for supplies and a long-overdue payroll. They found the station on 50% guard duty and molding bullets. Leib advised the station commander, Major Martin Anderson of the 11th Kansas Cavalry, that he had earlier passed a small train of five empty mule-drawn wagons returning from Sweetwater to Laramie, 14 teamsters escorted by 11 enlisted men of the 11th Kansas. Knowing that the train was due to come in the next morning, the officers at the post discussed sending out a relief force to drive off the Cheyenne and Lakota warriors, so that the wagon train could come safely in. Leib and Bretney suggested an immediate march but Anderson decided to wait for daylight. Bretney, who had succeeded to command of Company G on February 13 when its captain, Levi M. Rinehart, had been accidentally killed by a drunken trooper during a skirmish, was not on good terms with Anderson. On his arrival at Platte Bridge on July 16, the Kansan had replaced Bretney as post commander and ordered Company G to relocate to Sweetwater Station, escorting the same wagon train now returning from there. In addition, the 11th Kansas Cavalry was due to march to Fort Kearney on or about August 1 to muster out of service.</p><br>
<p>After reveille, all four of Andersons officers declined to lead the relief force and some placed themselves on the sick list to avoid the duty. 20-year-old 2nd Lt. Caspar W. Collins of Company G 11th Ohio Volunteer Cavalry, en route back to his company farther west from a remount detail at Fort Laramie, had arrived the afternoon before with the mail ambulance and was ordered by Anderson to lead the relief. Bretney had no authority to countermand the order but advised Collins to refuse it. Instead Collins borrowed Bretneys pistols and was given a mount from the regimental band. Among those leading the Indian warriors were Red Cloud and the famed warrior Roman Nose. George Bent, the half Cheyenne son of William Bent who survived the Sand Creek Massacre, participated in the battle as a Cheyenne warrior, and later wrote about it in his letters.</p><br>
<p>At dawn numerous Indians were observed by sentinels on the surrounding hills observing the station. At 7:00 a.m. a larger force forded the river east of the station and rode just out of rifle range, taunting the garrison. Collins and a small detachment of 25 men of the 11th Kansas crossed the Platte Bridge at a walk, then formed into a column of fours and rode west along the north bank at a trot to drive off any hostile Indians. Behind him, the contingent of the 3rd USAV.I. and its 11th Ohio Volunteer Cavalry escort crossed the bridge on foot as a support force for Collins, forming a skirmish line when they observed several hundred Cheyenne emerge from the sand hills and gulleys between themselves and Collins.</p><br>
<p>The Indians had concealed large bands of warriors near the bridge and over the crest of the hills, possibly as many as a thousand Lakota, Cheyenne and Arapaho. The battle lasted only a few minutes, with Bent claiming that the Lakota and Cheyenne suffered only a few casualties.</p><br>
<p>Bretney in a rage returned to the stockade and accused the Kansas officers of cowardice when Anderson refused to allow a larger force and the howitzer to attempt another relief. Anderson placed Bretney under arrest and turned over the post&#39;s defenses to Leib, who had the garrison throw up an embrasure and dig rifle pits to protect the howitzer at the south end of the bridge. During the morning the attacking force destroyed a thousand feet of telegraph wire on the line to Fort Laramie before Anderson thought to request reinforcements, then drove off the detail sent to repair it, killing another trooper.</p><br>
<p>The wagon train, commanded by Sergeant Amos J. Custard, was attacked approximately five miles to the west, within sight of the station, at around 11:00 a.m. According to the Indians the battle lasted about half an hour with one person escaping, a teamster, 22 troopers killed along with 8 Indian warriors. Many Indian warriors were wounded. The Indians, as was their custom, took no prisoners. However Army accounts state that the wagons were forced into a hollow where they held out for four hours, using fire from Spencer rifles to repel assaults until a large group closed on foot and overwhelmed the defenders, killing all. The wagons were burned at approximately 3:00 p.m. Corporal James A. Shrader and four troopers, sent as scouts by Custard to investigate the sound of the howitzer firing, were cut off and pursued by a hundred Cheyenne led by the brother of Roman Nose, Left Hand, who was killed in the running fight. Eventually Shrader and two men made their way on foot into the station. Two Shoshone scouts were paid to take a message requesting reinforcements to the next telegraph station east, but the attacking force broke up before relief arrived.</p><br>
<p>The battle became known as the Battle of Platte Bridge Station. The battle of the wagon train also became known as the Battle of Red Buttes, although that location was ten miles further to the west. Army fatalities in both actions numbered 27 men of the 11th Kansas Cavalry and Lt. Collins, with at least ten seriously wounded. Historian Robert Utley placed combined Indian casualties in all the July forays around Platte Bridge Station as 60 killed and 130 wounded. The Army officially renamed the post Fort Caspar to honor Collins, using his given name to differentiate the post from an existing fort in Colorado named after Collins&#39; father.</p><br>
<h3>Abandonment</h3><br>
<p>The fort was abandoned two years later in August 1867, with the garrison moved to Fort Fetterman at Douglas, Wyoming.</p><br>
<h3>Restoration/Museum</h3><br>
<p>Fort Caspar was partially reconstructed in 1936 using sketches made by Lieutenant Collins in 1863. The fort itself underwent a lot of changes during its occupation, and the current recreation reflects the post in 1863-1865. The City of Casper now operates a museum at the site, which features reconstructed log buildings, including a wooden stockade. The site also includes a replica of the Mormon ferry that was operated there between 1847 and 1849, as well as a model of part of the bridge that later replaced the ferry. In early December members of a living history group portraying a company of the 3rd US Infantry host a historical reenactment at the site.</p><br>
<p>The Admiralty Mountains  is a large group of high mountains and individually named ranges and ridges in northeastern Victoria Land, Antarctica. This mountain group is bounded by the Ross Sea, the Southern Ocean, and by the Dennistoun, Ebbe, and Tucker glaciers. The mountain range is situated on the Pennell Coast, a portion of Antarctica lying between Cape Williams and Cape Adare.</p><br>
<p>It was discovered in January 1841 by Captain James Ross, who named them for the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty under whose orders he served.</p><br>
<p>The Admiralty Mountains are divided into the Dunedin Range, Homerun Range, and Lyttelton Range.</p><br>
<h2>Mountains and peaks</h2><br>
<p>This range includes the following mountains and peaks:</p><br>
<h3>Mount Achilles</h3><br>
<p>Mount Achilles is a prominent pyramidal mountain rising from the divide between Fitch Glacier and Man-o-War Glacier. Named by New Zealand Geological Survey Antarctic Expedition (NZGSAE), 1957–58, after the former New Zealand cruiser.</p><br>
<h3>Mount Adam</h3><br>
<p>Mount Adam is situated 4 km WNW of Mount Minto. Discovered in January 1841 by Captain Ross who named this feature for Vice Admiral Sir Charles Adam, a senior naval lord of the Admiralty.</p><br>
<h3>Mount Ajax</h3><br>
<p>Mount Ajax rises 1.5 km (1 mi) WSW of Mount Royalist. Named by the New Zealand GSAE, 1957–58, after HMNZS Ajax. The mountain is one of several in this area named for New Zealand ships.</p><br>
<h3>Mount Bevin</h3><br>
<p>Mount Bevin is a prominent sharply pointed mountain at the western side of the head of Murray Glacier. The mountain stands 2 miles (3.2 km) west-northwest of Mount Sabine. Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names (US-ACAN) (2004) after Anthony (Tony) J. Bevin, Surveyor-General of New Zealand, and Chairman of the New Zealand Geographic Board, 1996–2004, with responsibility for New Zealand surveying and place naming in Antarctica.</p><br>
<h3>Mount Black Prince</h3><br>
<p>Mount Black Prince is composed of dark colored rock, which tends to create an imposing appearance. Located 6 km west of Mount Ajax. Named by the New Zealand Geological Survey Antarctic Expedition (NZ GSAE), 1957–58, for its appearance and also for the New Zealand Cruiser HMNZS Black Prince.</p><br>
<h3>Mount Gilruth</h3><br>
<p>Mount Gilruth is a mostly ice-covered mountain (3,160 m) 4.5 nautical miles (8 km) east-northeast of Mount Adam. Mapped by United States Geological Survey (USGS) from surveys and USA Navy air photos, 1960-63. Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names (US-ACAN) for Robert R. Gilruth of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, a visitor at McMurdo Station, 1966-67.</p><br>
<h3>Mount Minto</h3><br>
<p>Mount Minto is a lofty, mostly ice-free mountain located 4 km E of Mount Adam in the central portion of the range. Discovered in January 1841 by Captain James Ross, who named it for the Earl of Minto, then First Lord of the Admiralty. The first ascent was made in 1988 by the Australian Bicentennial Antarctic Expedition led by Greg Mortimer and included Lincoln Hall.</p><br>
<h3>Mount Parker</h3><br>
<p>Mount Parker is a bluff-type mountain along the western side of Nash Glacier. The area was mapped by the USGS from surveys and USA Navy air photos, 1960-63. The name Mount Parker was given to a mountain in this general vicinity by Captain James Ross, in 1840, honoring Vice Admiral Sir William Parker, a senior naval lord of the Admiralty, 1834-41. For the sake of historical continuity US-ACAN has retained the name for this mountain.</p><br>
<h3>Mount Peacock</h3><br>
<p>Mount Peacock is a high peak standing directly at the head of Kelly Glacier, 2.6 km southwest of Mount Herschel. It was discovered in January 1841 by Captain Ross who named it for the Very Reverend Dr. George Peacock, Dean of Ely.</p><br>
<h3>Mount Royalist</h3><br>
<p>Mount Royalist is a prominent mountain standing 3 km west of Mount Adam. Named by the New Zealand GSAE, 1957–58, for its impressive appearance and also for the New Zealand cruiser HMNZS Royalist. Several adjacent peaks are named for New Zealand ships including Mount Ajax and Mount Black Prince.</p><br>
<h3>Mount Sabine</h3><br>
<p>Mount Sabine is a prominent, relatively snow-free mountain rising between the heads of Murray Glacier and Burnette Glacier. Discovered on January 11, 1841, by Captain James Ross, Royal Navy, who named this feature for Lieutenant Colonel Edward Sabine of the Royal Artillery, Foreign Secretary of the Royal Society, one of the most active supporters of the expedition.</p><br>
<h2>Features</h2><br>
<p>Atkinson Glacier</p><br>
<p>Baldwin Bluff</p><br>
<p>Brewer Peak</p><br>
<p>Burnette Glacier</p><br>
<p>Church Glacier</p><br>
<p>Church Ridge</p><br>
<p>Cracktrack Glacier</p><br>
<p>Crandall Peak</p><br>
<p>DeAngelo Glacier</p><br>
<p>Deming Glacier</p><br>
<p>Dennistoun Glacier</p><br>
<p>DuBridge Range</p><br>
<p>Dugdale Glacier</p><br>
<p>Dunedin Range</p><br>
<p>Elsner Ridge</p><br>
<p>Fendley Glacier</p><br>
<p>Field Névé</p><br>
<p>Findlay Range</p><br>
<p>Fischer Ridge</p><br>
<p>Fitch Glacier</p><br>
<p>Fowlie Glacier</p><br>
<p>Freimanis Glacier</p><br>
<p>Gadsden Peaks</p><br>
<p>Geikie Ridge</p><br>
<p>Grigg Peak</p><br>
<p>Helman Glacier</p><br>
<p>Ironside Glacier</p><br>
<p>Jennings Peak</p><br>
<p>Kelly Glacier</p><br>
<p>Kirk Glacier</p><br>
<p>Lange Peak</p><br>
<p>Lann Glacier</p><br>
<p>Leander Glacier</p><br>
<p>Luther Peak</p><br>
<p>Lyttelton Range</p><br>
<p>Man-o-War Glacier</p><br>
<p>Massey Glacier</p><br>
<p>Meier Peak</p><br>
<p>Mount Achilles</p><br>
<p>Mount Bierle</p><br>
<p>Mount Brazil</p><br>
<p>Mount Chider</p><br>
<p>Mount Emerson</p><br>
<p>Mount Eos</p><br>
<p>Mount Faget</p><br>
<p>Mount Francis</p><br>
<p>Mount Frishman</p><br>
<p>Mount Gleaton</p><br>
<p>Mount Granholm</p><br>
<p>Mount Greene</p><br>
<p>Mount Hart</p><br>
<p>Mount Herschel</p><br>
<p>Mount Humphrey Lloyd</p><br>
<p>Mount Kyle</p><br>
<p>Mount LeResche</p><br>
<p>Mount Lozen</p><br>
<p>Mount Midnight</p><br>
<p>Mount Parker</p><br>
<p>Mount Pearigen</p><br>
<p>Mount Pew</p><br>
<p>Mount Pittard</p><br>
<p>Mount Ruegg</p><br>
<p>Mount Schaefer</p><br>
<p>Mount Shadow</p><br>
<p>Mount Shelton</p><br>
<p>Mount Titus</p><br>
<p>Mount Von Braun</p><br>
<p>Mount Whewell</p><br>
<p>Mount Wright</p><br>
<p>Murray Glacier</p><br>
<p>Nash Glacier</p><br>
<p>Novasio Ridge</p><br>
<p>Ommanney Glacier</p><br>
<p>Pitkevitch Glacier</p><br>
<p>Rastorfer Glacier</p><br>
<p>Robinson Heights</p><br>
<p>Rowles Glacier</p><br>
<p>Saxby Pass</p><br>
<p>Shipley Glacier</p><br>
<p>Simpson Glacier</p><br>
<p>Slagle Ridge</p><br>
<p>Slone Glacier</p><br>
<p>Sorensen Peak</p><br>
<p>Splettstoesser Pass</p><br>
<p>Staircase Glacier</p><br>
<p>Stamper Peak</p><br>
<p>Tocci Glacier</p><br>
<p>Tombstone Hill</p><br>
<p>Tucker Glacier</p><br>
<p>Wallis Glacier</p><br>
<p>Wetmore Peak</p><br>
<p>Whewell Glacier</p><br>
<p>Whitehall Glacier</p><br>
<p>Wylie Ridge</p><br>
<p>Berkner Island or Berkner Ice Rise or Hubley Island is an ice rise, where bedrock below sea level makes the ice dome upward. If the ice cap melted, it would be under water. Berkner "Island" is high and completely ice-covered and about 320 km long and 150 km wide, with an area of 44,000 km&sup2;. Berkner is surrounded by the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf. The northernmost point of the Berkner is about 20 km from the open sea. It lies in the overlapping portion of the Argentine and the British claims.</p><br>
<p>The island rises to 869 m (975 m according to other sources) and separates Ronne Ice Shelf from the Filchner Ice Shelf. It is characterized by two domes, Reinwarthhöhe in the north (698 m), at 78&deg;19&prime;S latitude, 46&deg;20&prime;W longitude, and Thyssenhöhe in the south (869 m), at 79&deg;34&prime;S latitude, 45&deg;42&prime;W longitude. It is indented by three bays on the eastern side, which are from north to south: McCarthy Inlet, Roberts Inlet, and Spilhouse Inlet. Gould Bay is on the north coast. Berkner Island is about 150 km west of Luitpold Coast, Coats Land, the closest mainland of Eastern Antarctica. 17 km off the northwest corner of Berkner Island is Hemmen Ice Rise.</p><br>
<p>Berkner Island was discovered by members of the United States-International Geophysical Year (US-IGY) party at Ellsworth Station under the leadership of Capt. Finn Ronne, United States Navy Reserve (USNR), during the 1957-1958 season. Berkner Island was named by the United States Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names (US-ACAN) for American physicist Lloyd Berkner, engineer with the Byrd Antarctic Expedition (1928–1930).</p><br>
<p>Since 1990, Berkner Island has been a jumping off point for a number of long distance polar expeditions. Ben Saunders has planned an unsupported journey from the island to the South Pole and back. It was the start point of Henry Worsley&#39;s attempt to cross the Antarctic in 2015/16.</p><br>
<p>In the 1994/1995 field season the British Antarctic Survey, Alfred Wegener Institute and the Forschungsstelle für Physikalische Glaziologie of the University of Münster cooperated in a project drilling ice cores on the North and South Domes of Berkner Island.</p><br>
<p>McMurdo Sound and its ice-clogged waters extends about 55 kilometres  long and wide. The sound connects the Ross Sea to the north with the Ross Ice Shelf cavity to the south via Haskell Strait. The strait is largely covered by the McMurdo Ice Shelf. The Royal Society Range rises from sea level to 4,205 metres  on the western shoreline. Ross Island, an historic jumping-off point for polar explorers, designates the eastern boundary. The active volcano Mount Erebus at 3,794 metres  dominates Ross Island. Antarctica&#39;s largest scientific base, the United States&#39; McMurdo Station, as well as the New Zealand Scott Base are on the southern shore of the island. Less than 10 percent of McMurdo Sound&#39;s shoreline is free of ice. It is the southernmost navigable body of water in the world.</p><br>
<p>Captain James Clark Ross discovered this sound, which is about 1,300 km from the South Pole, in February 1841, and he named it after Lt. Archibald McMurdo of HMS Terror. The sound today serves as a resupply route for cargo ships and for airplanes that land on the floating ice airstrips near the McMurdo Station. However, McMurdo Station&#39;s continuous occupation by human beings since 1957/58 has dirtied the harbor of Winter Quarters Bay.</p><br>
<p>The pack ice that girdles the shoreline at Winter Quarters Bay and elsewhere in the sound presents a formidable obstacle to surface ships. Vessels require ice-strengthened hulls and often have to rely upon escort by icebreakers. Such extreme sea conditions have limited access by tourists, who otherwise are appearing in increasing numbers in the open waters of the Antarctic Peninsula. The few tourists who reach the McMurdo Sound find spectacular scenery with wildlife to be seen, including killer whales, seals, Adélie penguins, and emperor penguins.</p><br>
<p>Cold circumpolar currents of the Southern Ocean reduce the flow of warm South Pacific or South Atlantic waters reaching McMurdo Sound and other Antarctic coastal waters. Bitter katabatic winds spilling down from the Antarctic polar plateau into McMurdo Sound demonstrate Antarctica&#39;s status as the coldest and windiest continent in the world. The McMurdo Sound freezes over with sea ice about 3 m thick during the winter. The Antarctic summer causes the pack ice to break up. Wind and currents may push the ice northward into the Ross Sea, stirring up cold bottom currents that spill into the ocean basins of the world. Temperatures during the dark winter months at McMurdo Station have dropped as low as -51 &deg;C. However, December and January are the warmest months, with average highs at -1 &deg;C, according to USA Today.</p><br>
<h2>Ice defines strategic role</h2><br>
<p>McMurdo Sounds role as a strategic waterway dates back to early 20th century Antarctic exploration. British explorers Ernest Shackleton and Robert Scott built bases on the sounds shoreline as jumping-off points for their overland expeditions to the South Pole.</p><br>
<p>McMurdo Sounds logistic importance continues today. Aircraft transporting cargo and passengers land upon frozen runways at Williams Field on the McMurdo Ice Shelf. Moreover, the annual sealift of a cargo ship and fuel tanker rely upon the sound as a supply route to the continents largest base, the United States McMurdo Station. Both the USA base and New Zealands nearby Scott Base are on the southern tip of Ross Island.</p><br>
<p>Ross Island is the southmost piece of land in Antarctica that is accessible by ship. In addition, the harbor at McMurdos Winter Quarters Bay is the worlds southmost seaport (Department of Geography, Texas A&M University). The access by ships depends upon favorable ice conditions.</p><br>
<p>McMurdo Sound during austral winter presents a virtually impenetrable expanse of surface ice. Even during summer, ships approaching McMurdo Sound are often blocked by various concentrations of first-year ice, fast ice (connected to the shoreline), and hard multi-year ice. Subsequently, icebreakers are required for maritime resupply missions to McMurdo Station. Nonetheless, ocean currents and fierce Antarctic winds can drive pack ice north into the Ross Sea, temporarily producing areas of open water.</p><br>
<h2>Iceberg B-15A clogs McMurdo Sound</h2><br>
<p>A common event of previously unseen dimensions occurred on the Ross Ice Shelf in 2000 that wreaked havoc at McMurdo Sound more than five years later. The 282 km long Iceberg B-15, the largest ever seen at the time, broke off from the Ross Ice Shelf in March 2000 (Antarctic Climate & Ecosystems: Cooperative Research Center). Then, on 27 October 2005, B-15 suddenly broke up.</p><br>
<p>Research based upon measurements retrieved from a seismometer previously placed on B-15 indicated that ocean swells caused by an earthquake 13,000 km away in the Gulf of Alaska caused the breakup, according to a report by the USA National Public Radio. Wind and sea currents shifted a smaller, but still massive Iceberg B-15A towards McMurdo Sound. B-15A&#39;s enormous girth temporarily blocked the outflow of pack ice from McMurdo Sound, according to news reports.</p><br>
<p>Iceberg B-15A&#39;s grounding at the mouth of McMurdo Sound also blocked the path for thousands of penguins to reach their food source in open water. Moreover, pack ice built up behind the iceberg in the Ross Sea creating a nearly 150 km frozen barrier that blocked two cargo ships en route to supply McMurdo Station, according to the National Science Foundation.</p><br>
<p>The icebreakers USCGC Polar Star and the Russian Krasin were required to open a ship channel through ice up to 3 m thick. The last leg of the channel followed a route along the eastern shoreline of McMurdo Sound adjacent to Ross Island. The icebreakers escorted the tanker USNS Paul Buck to McMurdo Station&#39;s ice pier in late January. The freighter MV American Tern followed on 3 February.</p><br>
<p>Similar pack ice blocked a National Geographic expedition aboard the 34 m Braveheart from reaching B-15A. However, expedition divers were able to explore the underwater world of another grounded tabular iceberg. They encountered a surprising environment of fish and other sea life secreted within a deep iceberg crevasse. Discoveries included starfish, crabs, and ice fish. The latter were found to have burrowed thumb-sized holes into the ice.</p><br>
<p>The expedition reported an exceedingly rare and seldom witnessed occurrence of an iceberg exploding. Shards of ice erupted into the air as if a bomb went off, this only hours after divers surfaced and after the Braveheart moved away from the iceberg (National Geographic).</p><br>
<h2>Winds have far-reaching effects</h2><br>
<p>Polar winds are a driving force behind weather systems arising from three surface zones that converge at McMurdo Sound: the polar plateau and Transantarctic Mountains, the Ross Ice Shelf, and the Ross Sea. These surface zones create a range of dynamic weather systems. Cold, heavy air descending rapidly from the polar plateau at elevations of 3,000 m or more spawns fierce katabatic winds. These dry winds can reach hurricane force by the time they reach the Antarctic coast. Wind instruments recorded Antarcticas highest wind velocity at the coastal station Dumont dUrville in July 1972 at 320 km/h (Australian Government Antarctica Division).</p><br>
<p>Prevailing winds spilling into McMurdo Sound shoot between mountain passes and other land formations, stirring up blizzards known locally as "Herbies". Such blizzards can occur any time of year. Residents of McMurdo Station and Scott Base have dubbed the nearby White Island and Black Island as Herbie Alley due to winds that funnel blizzards between the islands (Field Manual for the USA Antarctic Program).</p><br>
<p>Overall the continents extreme cold air scarcely holds enough moisture for snowfall. Consequently, Antarcticas blizzards are at times as much about wind stirring up existing snow as they are about new snowfall. For instance, the water equivalent from annual snow fall on Ross Island averages only 17.6 cm (National Science Foundation). Snowfall in Antarctica&#39;s interior is far less at 5 cm. Noted as well are the McMurdo Dry Valleys on the western shores of McMurdo Sound where snow seldom accumulates.</p><br>
<p>Antarcticas shortfall in new snow does not lessen the continents striking polar climate. Antarctica essentially doubles in size during the winter as the surrounding sea water freezes (Antarctic Connection). The subsequent annual summer melt of the estimated 18,000,000 km&sup2; of ice that rings Antarctica creates the planet&#39;s largest seasonal climate event (USA Today). The result is a vertical circulation driven by a massive heat and energy exchange between ice, ocean, and atmosphere.</p><br>
<p>McMurdo Sound provides an important component in Antarcticas global effects upon climate. A key factor is the polar winds that can drive the sounds pack ice into the Ross Sea summer or winter. Frigid katabatic winds rake subsequent exposed water, causing sea ice to form. Freezing surface water excludes salt from the water below; leaving behind heavy, cold water that sinks to the ocean floor. This process repeats itself along Antarcticas coastal areas, spreading cold sea water outward into the worlds ocean basins.</p><br>
<p>According to an interview with a climatologist Gerd Wendler, published in the National Science Foundation&#39;s Antarctic Sun, one could dive to the ocean floor anywhere in the world and encounter water from the coast of Antarctica. "Seventy five percent of all the bottom water, wherever you are, comes from Antarctica."</p><br>
<h3>McMurdo Station</h3><br>
<p>Average mean sea-level temp: -20 &deg;C</p><br>
<p>Monthly mean range: -3 &deg;C in January to -28 &deg;C in August</p><br>
<p>Stormiest months: February and October</p><br>
<p>Source: USA National Science Foundation</p><br>
<h3>Antarctica</h3><br>
<p>Coldest, highest, windiest continent in the world</p><br>
<p>Highest recorded wind velocity: 327 km/h, Dumont d&#39;Urville Station, July 1972</p><br>
<p>Source: Australian Government Antarctica Division</p><br>
<h2>Life below the ice</h2><br>
<p>A rich sea life thrives under the barren expanse of McMurdo Sound&#39;s ice pack. For example, frigid waters that would kill many other fish in the world sustain the Antarctic notothenioids, a bony "ice fish" related to walleyes and perch. The notothenioids feature an Antifreeze protein in their bloodstream that prevents them from freezing. Notothenioids account for more than 50 percent of the number of fish species in the Antarctic coastal regions and 90 to 95 percent of the biomass, according to the National Academy of Sciences for the United States.</p><br>
<p>What some sea creatures lack in numbers, they make up for in their visual presentation. McMurdo Sound divers encounter colorful examples of sea life, including bright yellow cactus sponges and green globe sponges. Starfish, sea urchins, and sea anemones are also present. The latter is noted for its wispy tentacles. Large sea spiders inhabit the deeps of the sound and feed on sea anemone, whereas swarms of Antarctic krill flourish in the upper depths of the icy waters. The shrimp-like krill is a key species in the Southern Ocean food chain for sea life ranging from the baleen whale to penguins. The sound is also home to soft coral, whose flexible form allows the creature to bend so as to feed off the ocean floor.</p><br>
<p>Antarctic penguins, famous for their waddling walk on surface ice, transform themselves into graceful and powerful swimmers underwater. The emperor penguins&#39; pursuit of squid, fish, and crustaceans leads them to dive as deep as 500 m. However, the emperor can go deeper. Scientists have found that the penguin can reach 600 m for short durations. The much smaller Adélie penguin is less ambitious. It feeds underwater for up to two minutes at a maximum depth of 170 m.</p><br>
<p>The Weddell seal out-dives even the emperor penguin. The seal can hold its breath for up to 80 minutes and reach a depth of 700 m (Underwater Field Guide to Ross Island & McMurdo Sound). Scientists diving in McMurdo also encounter the leopard seal, and crabeater seal. The many-storied leopard seal is a ferocious predator that preys on warm-blooded animals, such as other seals and penguins, whereas the more sedate crabeater uses its unusual multilobed teeth to sieve krill from the water.</p><br>
<p>Seals have a natural enemy in the orca or killer whale of McMurdo Sound. The killer whale&#39;s voracious appetite leads it to consume up to 227 kg of food daily. The orcas feature black and white coloring, a large dorsal fin up to 1.8 m, and enormous strength and size — males can be 8 m. The whales travel in pods of up to 30 individuals and can swim up to 46 km/h.</p><br>
<h2>Seascape reveals human impact</h2><br>
<p>A 2001 survey of the seabed near McMurdo revealed 15 vehicles, 26 shipping containers, and 603 fuel drums, as well as some 1,000 miscellaneous items dumped on an area of some 20 hectare. Findings by scuba divers were reported in the State of the Environment Report, a New Zealand sponsored study.</p><br>
<p>The study by the government agency Antarctica New Zealand revealed that decades of daily pumping thousands of gallons of raw sewage from 1,200 summer residents into the sound had fouled Winter Quarters Bay, the harbor at McMurdo. The pollution ended in 2003 when a $5 million waste treatment plant went online. Other documented bay water contaminants include leakage from an open dump at the station. The dump introduced heavy metals, petroleum compounds, and chemicals into the water.</p><br>
<p>Zoologist Clive Evans from Auckland University described McMurdo&#39;s harbor as "one of the most polluted harbors in the world in terms of oil", according to a 2004 article by the New Zealand Herald.</p><br>
<p>Modern operations in McMurdo Sound have sparked surface cleanup efforts, recycling, and exporting trash and other contaminants by ship. The USA National Science Foundation began a 5-year, $30-million cleanup program in 1989, according to Reuters News Agency. The concentrated effort targeted the open dump at McMurdo. By 2003, the USA Antarctic Program reported recycling approximately 70% of its wastes, according to Australia&#39;s Herald Sun.</p><br>
<p>The 1989 cleanup included workers testing hundreds of barrels at the dump site, mostly full of fuels and human waste, for identification before they are loaded onto a freighter for exportation. The precedent for exporting wastes began in 1971. The United States shipped out tons of radiation-contaminated soil after officials shut down a small nuclear power plant.</p><br>
<p>Yet the very ships involved in supporting the export of McMurdo Station&#39;s waste present pollution hazards themselves. A study by the Australian Institute of Marine Science found that anti-fouling paints on the hulls of icebreakers are polluting McMurdo Sound. Such paints kill algae, barnacles, and other marine life that adhere to ship hulls. Scientists found that samples taken from the ocean floor contained high levels of tributyltin (TBT), a component of the anti-fouling paints. "The levels are close to the maximum, you will find anywhere, apart from ship grounding sites", said Andrew Negri of the institute.</p><br>
<p>Ships, aircraft, and land-based operations in McMurdo Sound all present hazards of oil spills or fuel leaks. For instance, in 2003, the build-up of two years of difficult ice conditions blocked the USA tanker MV Richard G. Matthiesen from reaching the harbor at McMurdo Station, despite the assistance of icebreakers. Instead shore workers rigged a temporary 5.6 km fuel line over the ice pack to discharge the ship&#39;s cargo. The ship pumped more than 23 e6L of fuel to storage facilities at McMurdo.</p><br>
<p>Officials balance the potential for fuel spills inherent in such operations against the critical need to keep McMurdo Station supplied with oil. A fuel tank spill in an unrelated onshore incident in 2003 spilled roughly 25,000 L of Diesel fuel at a helicopter pad at McMurdo Station. The 1989 grounding of the Argentinean ship Bahia Paraiso and subsequent spillage of 640,000 L of oil into the sea near the Antarctic Peninsula showed the environmental hazards inherent in supply missions to Antarctica.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism surge yet to reach McMurdo</h2><br>
<p>Antarctica&#39;s extreme remoteness and hazardous travel conditions limit Antarctica tourism to an expensive niche industry largely centered on the Antarctic Peninsula. The number of seaborne tourists grew fourfold during the 1990s, reaching more than 14,000 by 2000, up from 2,500 ten years earlier. More than 46,000 airborne and seaborne tourists visited Antarctica during the 2007–2008 season, according to the International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators (IAATO).</p><br>
<p>This confederation of tour operators reports that only 5% of Antarctic tourists visit the Ross Sea area, which encompasses McMurdo Sound. Tourists congregate on the ice-free coastal zones during summer near the Antarctic Peninsula. The peninsula&#39;s wildlife, soaring mountains, and dramatic seascapes have drawn commercial visitors since the late 1950s, when Argentina and Chile operated cruises to the South Shetland Islands.</p><br>
<p>Tourists flights began in 1957, when a Pan American Boeing 377 Stratocruiser made the first civilian flight to Antarctica. Commercial flights landed at McMurdo Sound and the South Pole in the 1960s. Routine overflights from Australia and New Zealand took place between 1977 and 1980, transporting more than 11,000 passengers, according to Antarctica New Zealand, which manages Scott Base. One such flight, Air New Zealand Flight 901, crashed into Mount Erebus on the eastern shores of McMurdo Sound. The crash high on the slopes of the active volcano took the lives of all 257 people aboard the aircraft.</p><br>
<p>In 1969 the MS Explorer brought seagoing tourists to Antarctica (British Antarctic Survey). The cruises founder, Lars-Eric Lindblad, coupled expeditionary cruising with education. He is quoted as saying, "You cant protect what you don&#39;t know" (IAATO). In the decades since the Lindblad, ships engaged in Antarctic sight-seeing cruises have grown in size and number.</p><br>
<p>Infrequent Antarctic cruises have included passenger vessels carrying up to 960 tourists (IAATO). Such vessels may conduct so-called "drive-by" cruises, with no landings made ashore.</p><br>
<p>The Russian Kapitan Khlebnikov has conducted voyages to the Weddell Sea and Ross Sea regions since 1992. High-latitude cruises in dense pack ice are only achievable during the summer season, November into March. In 1997, the vessel Kapitan Khlebnikov claimed the distinction of being the first ship to circumnavigate Antarctica with passengers (Quark Expeditions). Passengers aboard the icebreaker make landings aboard Zodiac inflatable boats to explore remote beaches. Their itinerary may also include stops at Ross Island&#39;s historic explorer huts at Discovery Point near McMurdo Station or Cape Royds (Antarctica New Zealand). Additionally, the Russian icebreaker extends the reach of tourism by launching helicopter trips from its decks, including visits to sites such as the McMurdo Dry Valleys and areas noted for wildlife viewing.</p><br>
<p>The Spirit of Enderby has been conducting cruises to the Ross Sea region for many years, including McMurdo Sound. Although the Enderby has an ice-strengthened hull, the ship is not an icebreaker. The Enderby sports Zodiac inflatable boats, a hovercraft for Antarctica voyages, and all-terrain vehicles for over ice or overland travel. Land-based tourism in Antarctica, however, continues to be rare. Antarctica lacks a permanent land-based tourism facility, despite the annual surge in the number of visitors.</p><br>
<p>The International Association of Tour Operators (IAATO) has established voluntary standards to discourage tourists from disrupting wildlife. Nonetheless, large ships, carrying more than 400 passengers, may spend up to 12 hours transporting tourists to and from breeding sites. Such large-ship operations expose wildlife to humans far longer than smaller vessels.</p><br>
<h2>Prominent features</h2><br>
<p>Beaufort Island – This small island at the northern entrance to McMurdo Sound is a protected area due to its site as a penguin rookery.</p><br>
<p>Black Island – This island is west of nearby White Island and is about 25 mi from McMurdo Station. An unmanned telecommunications base is here.</p><br>
<p>Cape Royds – This is a protected area with the most southerly Adelie penguin colony (Antarctica New Zealand). The site features an expedition hut built by Ernest Shackleton and his crew of the Nimrod in 1907 on western shore of Ross Island.</p><br>
<p>Discovery Point – Also called Hut Point, this location overlooking Winter Quarters Bay is the site of the expedition hut built by the British Antarctic Expedition(1901–04) led by Robert Falcon Scott.</p><br>
<p>Glacier Ice Tongues – The Erebus Ice Tongue projects 11-12 km from the coastline and reaches up to 10 m in height. Ice flowing rapidly from the glacier at the base of Mount Erebus forms the ice structure. MacKay Glacier Tongue is across the sound to the northwest at Granite Harbor.</p><br>
<p>McMurdo Dry Valleys – This row of valleys on the western shore are so named because of their extremely low humidity and their lack of snow or ice cover.</p><br>
<p>McMurdo Ice Shelf – This floating ice shelf forms the southern boundary of McMurdo Sound and is itself part of the larger Ross Ice Shelf.</p><br>
<p>Mount Discovery – This isolated volcanic cone on the western shore of McMurdo Sound reaches 2,681 m in height.</p><br>
<p>Mount Erebus – This mountain is the southernmost active volcano on Earth. (Antarctic Connection). The mountain reaches 3,794 m in height and is on Ross Island.</p><br>
<p>Ross Island – This island features four principal volcanoes: Mount Erebus, Mount Terror, Mount Bird, and Mount Terra Nova. The United States and New Zealand scientific bases are on the southern end of the island.</p><br>
<p>Royal Society Range – This volcanic range is part of the Transantarctic Mountains, one of the worlds longest mountain chains (Antarctic Connection). The Royal Society Range is on McMurdo Sounds southwestern shore.</p><br>
<p>White Island – The McMurdo Ice Shelf encircles White Island, which is visible from Scott Base. A perennial tidal crack in the ice permits Weddell seals to live at the island year round. (Texas A&M University at Galveston LABB)</p><br>
<p>Purple Mountain or Zijin Shan  is located on the eastern side of Nanjing in Jiangsu province, China. It is 448.2 m  high, with the lowest point 30 m . Its peaks are often found enveloped in mysterious purple and golden clouds at dawn and dusk, hence its name.</p><br>
<p>A small mountain with an area about 20 square kilometres (4,900 acres), Purple Mountain is a mountain related to many historical events of both ancient and modern China. It was originally known as Bell Mountain ( 鐘山, 钟山, Zhōngshān) and also became known as Mount Jiang ( 蔣山, 蒋山, Jiǎngshān) after Sun Quan named Jiang Ziwen, an Eastern Han official whose spirit was said to haunt the site, as the mountain&#39;s god during the Three Kingdoms era. The name Zijin (紫金) is meaning "copper" - when the copper is pure, it will be purple, so in Chinese it also call purple-gold. With the purple rock on the mountain, it also name Mount Jinling (金陵山), Jinling is meaning "the mount of purple-gold". It is the origin of the nick name Jinling (金陵) of Nanking city. At Ming dynasty, it also name Mount Shenlie (神烈山).</p><br>
<p>More than 200 heritage and scenic tourist sites are now located in or around the mountain, among which include three national historical sites, nine provincial historical sites, and 33 prefectural historical sites. Located in or close to the hillside of Purple-Gold Mountain, there are also about a dozen national research institutes and universities.</p><br>
<p>Purple Mountain has 621 species of vascular plants, from 383 genera, 118 families (including 78 cultivated species).</p><br>
<p>The Matakitaki River is located in the north of New Zealand&#39;s South Island. An upper tributary of the Buller River, it flows north and west for 65 kilometres from its source north of the Lewis Pass, joining the Buller at Murchison. It has one major tributary, the Glenroy River.</p><br>
<h2>Whitewater recreation</h2><br>
<p>The river has two excellent whitewater sections on it, and they are frequently paddled.</p><br>
<p>The "Middle Matakitaki" section is about 10 km up the valley from Murchison, and is Grade/Class 2+, with some excellent play spots.</p><br>
<p>The "Lower Matakitaki" section is a short distance up the river from Murchison, and is a short technical run pushing Grade/Class 3+ at medium flows, Grade/Class 4 at higher flows.</p><br>
<p>The Matakitaki River and tributaries are known for gold mining, both historically and today. Alluvial gold is regarded as having a high purity and is often found in the coarse form. Many river flats are subject to mining, including two dredging operations situated within the riverbed within the "Lower" and "Middle" sections.</p><br>
<h2>Trout fishing</h2><br>
<p>It is an extremely important fishery and highly regarded not only for the numbers caught, but also as a trophy River.</p><br>
<h2>Hydroelectric power</h2><br>
<p>Network Tasman have proposed a 30MW hydroelectric power station for the river. Whitewater NZ say it will interfere with the popular Middle Matakitaki whitewater run. Network Tasman announced that plans to investigate the river for hydro development are on hold due to economic conditions.</p><br>
<p>Ōkārito Lagoon is a coastal lagoon on the West Coast of New Zealand&#39;s South Island. It is located 130 km south of Hokitika, and covers an area of about 12 km&sup2;, making it the largest unmodified wetland in New Zealand.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Several small rivers drain into the lagoon, and it is the outflow of Lake Mapourika. The lagoon is home of many species of wading birds, notably the extremely rare (in New Zealand) kōtuku (Eastern great egret). Ōkārito is the kōtuku&#39;s only New Zealand breeding place.</p><br>
<p>At the southern end of the lagoon is the small settlement of Ōkārito. Originally a gold mining township, the population reached of over 1,500 in 1866. It is now permanent home to only about 30 residents; among them Booker Prize-winning writer Keri Hulme and landscape photographer Andris Apse.</p><br>
<p>Bird watching, eco-tours and kayak tours of the lagoon are available, and there are a number of local walking tracks.</p><br>
<p>In 1909 the bones of a whale beached in 1908, 6 mi north of the settlement were taken to Canterbury Museum and displayed and called the Okarito Whale.</p><br>
<h2>Wildlife</h2><br>
<p>The Kotuku and more than 76 other bird species have been recorded at Ōkārito. These species include migratory waders, gulls, shags and terns on the estuarine mud flats as well as black swans, scaup, crested grebes, and ducks in freshwater areas. Tui, bellbird, kingfishers, pigeon, crakes, fern birds, and bitterns and crakes inhabit the wetland areas.</p><br>
<p>The rarest species of kiwi, the Okarito kiwi, or Rowi, is also found near the town of Ōkārito. It is also the only nesting ground for white herons in New Zealand.</p><br>
<p>Pitt Island is the second largest island in the Chatham Archipelago, New Zealand. It is called Rangiauria in Māori and Rangiaotea in Moriori.</p><br>
<p>Pitt Island has an area of 65 km&sup2;. It lies about 770 km to the east of New Zealand&#39;s main islands, and about 20 km to the southeast of Chatham Island, from which it is separated by Pitt Strait. The island is hilly; its highest point (Waihere Head) rises to 241 m above sea level., Pitt Island had a population of about 38 people.</p><br>
<p>Pitt Island&#39;s Kahuitara Point is the first populated location on earth to observe a sunrise in each new year, based on local time zone.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Pitt Island was originally inhabited by the Moriori, the indigenous peoples of the Chatham Islands, who called it Rangiaotea or Rangihaute. Their archaeological remains are found almost everywhere on the island; large quantities of artefacts are constantly coming to light. No remains of momori rakau are visible on the island, but there are records of them once being present.</p><br>
<p>The first Europeans to see and name Chatham Island were the crew of William Robert Broughtons ship. However, they did not see Pitt Island. The first to do so was Captain Charles Johnston on in May 1807. He named it Pitts Island after William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham. In 1840, the name was simplified to "Pitt" Island. Taranaki Maori who invaded the Chatham Islands in 1835 called it Rangiauria, a name which is still in use today.</p><br>
<p>Over the years there have been many ships wrecked around both Pitt and Chatham Islands. The Glory, a small brigantine was wrecked in what became known as Glory Bay in 1827.</p><br>
<h2>Economy and facilities</h2><br>
<p>The main sources of income for Pitt Islanders are farming, commercial fishing, and tourism. The New Zealand Department of Conservation is active on Pitt Island and, in conjunction with several landowners, administers a number of covenanted areas and reserves. The island imports fuel and most manufactured goods, and exports live sheep and cattle to mainland New Zealand.</p><br>
<p>The island has a school, a wharf, a church and a grass landing strip for light planes. A gravel road runs from Flower Pot Bay to the air strip. A supply ship visits Pitt Island about every three months. Each household generates its own electricity, by either diesel generator or wind turbine. Most homes have satellite TV and broadband internet connections. Transport on the island was mostly by means of quad bikes, four wheel drives and occasionally horses. In 2011, the Pitt Island School had eight children, aged between 6 and 12 years.</p><br>
<h2>Fauna and flora</h2><br>
<p>On Pitt Island there are several flocks of feral Saxon Merino sheep.</p><br>
<h3>Aerodrome</h3><br>
<p>Air Chathams operates from Pitt Island to Chatham Island with their Cessna 206.</p><br>
<p>Shotover is a hill and forest in Oxfordshire, England.</p><br>
<p>Shotover Hill is 3 mi east of Oxford. Its highest point is 557 ft above sea level.</p><br>
<h2>Early history</h2><br>
<p>The toponym may be derived from the Old English scoet ofer, meaning "steep slope". Shotover was part of the Wychwood royal forest from around the period of the Domesday Book until 1660.</p><br>
<h3>Shotover giant</h3><br>
<p>A hill figure is recorded as having once been carved on the hill. Antiquarian John Aubrey writes:</p><br>
<h2>Shotover Road</h2><br>
<p>The road between London and Oxford used to pass over the top of Shotover Hill. The road was made into a turnpike under the 1719 Stokenchurch Turnpike Act.</p><br>
<h2>Shotover Park</h2><br>
<p>Shotover Park and garden were begun in about 1714 for James Tyrrell of Oakley. Tyrell died in 1718 and the house was completed by his son, General James Tyrell. There is no known record of the name of the architect. In 1855 the architect Joshua Sims added two wings in the same style of the original part of the house.</p><br>
<p>The garden was begun in 1718 and completed in 1730. It is a rare survivor of formal gardens of this period, laid out along an east–west axis 1,200 yd long. The centrepiece of the garden east of the house is a straight canal, ending with a Gothic Revival folly. The architect of the folly is unknown, but if it was built before 1742 it may be one of the earliest examples of the Gothic Revival. The garden west of the house has a similarly long vista, ending with an octagonal temple designed in the 1730s by William Kent.</p><br>
<p>During the Second World War there was a prisoner-of-war camp in the grounds.</p><br>
<p>Lieutenant-Colonel Sir John Miller, Crown Equerry 1961–87, lived in Shotover Park for most of his life. He died on May 17, 2006, aged 87. It is now owned by Sir Beville Douglas Stanier, 3rd Baronet.</p><br>
<p>Quarantine Island/Kamau Taurua is the largest island in Otago Harbour, close to the city of Dunedin, New Zealand. Historically the island has been known colloquially by a number of names, including Middle Island and St Martin Island.</p><br>
<p>The island covers an area of 15 hectare, and is a publicly accessible recreation reserve. The major buildings on the island are listed with Heritage New Zealand and owned by Quarantine Island/Kamau Taurua Community.</p><br>
<p>The island served as the quarantine station for Otago from 1863 until 1924. When ships arrived in Otago harbour with infectious diseases, passengers waited the requisite quarantine period for that disease, usually one to two weeks, at the quarantine station. Sick passengers stayed in the hospital on top of the island. There is a small cemetery on the island.</p><br>
<p>Only one of the quarantine buildings from these years is still standing, and this Is now restored. It has a NZ Historic Places Trust Category 1 classification. After the quarantine station closed the island was leased. Now the area around the buildings is leased by Quarantine Island/Kamau Taurua Community, established in 1958 as St Martin Island Community, and the remainder jointly managed by the Community and the Department of Conservation. The resident Keeper manages the farm and St Martin Lodge (available for groups), and oversees a wide range of ecological, educational and cultural projects.</p><br>
<p>In 1996 as part of the Ngai Tahu settlement the name of Kamau Taurua, meaning a place to set nets was restored as part of the official name.</p><br>
<p>A smaller island, Goat Island/Rakiriri, lies close to Quarantine Island. Both islands lie across the harbour between the town of Port Chalmers and the marine laboratory on Portobello Peninsula, part of the Otago Peninsula.</p><br>
<p>Brimham Rocks are balancing rock formations on Brimham Moor in North Yorkshire, England. The rocks stand at a height of nearly 30 feet in an area owned by the National Trust which is part of the Nidderdale Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty.</p><br>
<p>The site is open all year round; typically from 8 a.m. until dusk. Entry is free but car parking is charged for visitors who are not members of the National Trust.</p><br>
<p>There are many variations of rock formations, caused by Millstone Grit being eroded by water, glaciation and wind, some of which have formed amazing shapes. Many formations have been named, though imagination is required and the correct viewing angle is helpful. Examples include the Sphinx, the Watchdog, the Camel, the Turtle and the Dancing Bear. The area was recognized as being a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) in 1958.</p><br>
<p>The childrens television programme Roger and the Rottentrolls was filmed at Brimham Rocks and the site also features in the Bee Gees video You Win Again. A scene of series six of Knightmare, another children&#39;s programme and adventure game show, saw Brimham Rocks used as a location although only used once.</p><br>
<p>Dimitsana  is a mountain village and a former municipality in Arcadia, Peloponnese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Gortynia, of which it is the seat and a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 110.759 km. Dimitsana is built on the ruins of the ancient town Teuthis. The population of the village is 342 , while it was 611 in 2001. It has been registered as a traditional settlement.</p><br>
<p>Dimitsana is built on a mountain slope at an elevation of 950 meters. From its southern side a marvelous view of Megalopolis plain and Taygetus is provided. Dimitsana is located 53 km east of Pyrgos, 31 km northwest of Tripoli, 23 km northwest of Megalopoli and 17 km northeast of Andritsaina. The village has a school, a historical library, several churches, a post office, an open-air water-power museum, an open amphitheater, hotels and a square.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>At the site of present-day Dimitsana there was, in ancient times, the ancient Arcadian town Teuthis that had participated in the Trojan War, but also in the colonization of Megalopolis.</p><br>
<p>In 963 Philosophou Monastery was founded 2,5 km from Dimitsana. The name of the town is first recorded in 967 in a Patriarchate&#39;s document related to Philosophou Monastery. The first gunpowder mills of the town were built under the guise of home industry in the middle of the 18th century by Bishop Ananias Lakedaimonias, who paved a revolt against the Turks. In 1764 the movement was revealed and Ananias and his partners were killed. In the same year Agapios, a wise monk, built a library, where he moved the books of the monastery. The library was growing up constantly until 1821, as the Patriarchate offered new books and there was operating a seminary, known as Φροντιστήριο Ελληνικών Γραμμάτων (Tuitin Centre of Greek Literature). A lot of bishops and scholars graduated from it, among them Patriarch Gregory V of Constantinople and Germanos III of Old Patras whose houses have survived in the town.</p><br>
<p>After the Orlov events, some inhabitants of Dimitsana bearing the name "Tasoulis" (Τασούλης) migrated to Minor Asia fleeing the Albanian ravaging of Peloponnese. Upon arrival in Koldere, in 1777, near Magnesia (ad Sipylum), they changed their name "Tasopoulos" (Τασόπουλος).</p><br>
<p>Ιn the Greek War of Independence Dimitsana played an important role with its gunpowder mills, but during the war a large part of its librarys books were destroyed, as Greek warriors used their paper in the 14 gunpowder mills, that worked day and night, supplying them with gunpowder. For this reason Dimitsana has been called "the Nations powder keg".</p><br>
<p>In 1960 Dimitsana&#39;s population was about 2,000, but a lot of people have since then immigrated to the United States, Australia and elsewhere.</p><br>
<h2>Sights</h2><br>
<p>Dimitsana is a stone-built village with remarkable mansions, most of which are now restored. It is a typical sample of Gortynia&#39;s architecture and it is registered as a traditional one. The statue of Patriarch Gregory V dominates in the central square and also the family houses of both him and Germanos III of Old Patras can be seen.</p><br>
<p>Dimitsanas Library contains today about 35,000 books, manuscripts and documents. In Dimitsanas Museum, housed in the Library, there are collections of weaving, looms and handicrafts and an archaeological one. The Elementary School was built 1898–1910, by a donation of Andreas Syngros, and is a characteristic sample of that period. It operated as a girls&#39; school until 1930 and later as county court.</p><br>
<p>Not far from the village is the Open-air Water Power Museum (1997), created by restoration of abandoned pre-industrial facilities, based on the Water Power. It includes a flourmill, a traditional cauldron, a tannery, a tanner&#39;s house and a gunpowder mill.</p><br>
<p>In the surroundings important sights include the Old and the New Philosophou Monastery and Prodromou Monastery, both located inside Loussios&#39;s gorge.</p><br>
<h2>Subdivisions</h2><br>
<p>The municipal unit Dimitsana is subdivided into the following communities (constituent villages in brackets):</p><br>
<p>Dimitsana (Dimitsana, Karkalou, Moni Aimyalon i Filosofou, Palaiochori)</p><br>
<p>Melissopetra</p><br>
<p>Panagia</p><br>
<p>Rados</p><br>
<p>Rizospilia (Rizospilia, Kato Rizospilia)</p><br>
<p>Zatouna (Zatouna, Vlongos, Markos)</p><br>
<p>Zigovisti</p><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Germanos, metropolitan bishop of Patras (1771–1826)</p><br>
<p>Gregory V (1746–1821), Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople</p><br>
<p>Theophanes III (1570-1644), Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem</p><br>
<p>Tassos Gritsopoulos, historian</p><br>
<p>Archbishop Ieremias of Gortyna</p><br>
<p>Quail Island  is a small uninhabited island within Lyttelton Harbour in the South Island of New Zealand, close to Christchurch. The island was given its European name by Captain Mein Smith who saw native quail here in 1842; though they were already extinct by 1875. Ōtamahua has the meaning of a place where children collect sea eggs.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Apparently uninhabited by the New Zealand native peoples, it was still often visited to collect shellfish, flax, bird&#39;s eggs as well as stone for tools (from King Billy Island, an outcrop just off Quail Island). Europeans briefly farmed it in 1851, before it was turned into a quarantine station in 1875, and later into a small leper colony from 1907–1925, while being used as a hospital during the influenza epidemic of 1907.</p><br>
<p>Replicas of dog kennels (once used for training of the dogs used in Antarctic expeditions of the early 20th century) and a replica leprosy patient’s hut were built by students of Cathedral College, with the quarantine barracks also restored and moved to the beach front. Subantarctic explorations that used Quail Island were the Discovery Expedition (1901–04), Nimrod Expedition (1907–09), Terra Nova Expedition (1910–13), and the Byrd Antarctic Expedition (1928–30). The island was declared a recreation reserve in 1975, but was also farmed (potatoes) until the early 1980s by David Helliwell who also acted as the islands caretaker. This island has a number of safe swimming beaches, as well as some day facilities (toilets, day shelter). A ferry service is available to the island, and private watercraft may also access the island. A man called Ivon Skelton was buried on the island on 22 October 1923, and this is the islands only grave.</p><br>
<h2>Ecological restoration</h2><br>
<p>The Ōtamahua/Quail Island Ecological Restoration Trust and the Department of Conservation are currently working to remove pests and re-vegetate the island, with the aim of eventually re-introducing native wildlife.</p><br>
<p>Lake Tikitapu or Blue Lake, is the smallest of four small lakes lying between Lake Rotorua and Lake Tarawera in the Bay of Plenty region of New Zealand&#39;s North Island. The others are Lake Rotokakahi , Lake Okareka, and Lake Okataina.</p><br>
<p>Along with the others, Lake Tikitapu lies within a volcanic caldera formed within the last 300,000 years. The blue colour of the lake can be attributed to rhyolite and pumice on the lake bed. The lake has no visible outlet; however, subsurface flow drains towards Lake Tarawera.</p><br>
<p>In summer, the lake is used for recreational purposes, with many sports events being held such as water skiing and triathlons. Like many of the lakes in the Rotorua district, it is also used for trout fishing.</p><br>
<p>Ombo is the largest island in the Ryfylke region on the southwestern coast of Norway, and is the second largest island in Rogaland county. The 57.5 km&sup2; island of Ombo is divided between the municipalities Hjelmeland and Finnøy. There are several villages on the island including Jørstadvåg, Atlatveit, and Eidssund in the western part of the island which belongs to Finnøy municipality. The villages of Tuftene, Skipavik, Skår, and Vestersjø are located on the southeastern part of the island which belongs to Hjelmeland municipality. Jørstad Church is located in the village of Jørstadvåg.</p><br>
<p>The island is at the northeastern edge of a large group of islands in the Boknafjorden. Ombo is located north of the islands of Randøy and Halsnøya, northeast of the island of Finnøy, and east of the Sjernarøyane archipelago. The highest point on the island is the 515 m tall Bandåsen. Ombo is surrounded by fjords that are connected to the main Boknafjorden. The Ombofjorden to the east, Gardssundfjorden to the south, Gapafjorden to the west, and Jelsafjorden to the north.</p><br>
<p>After the road was built around the island of Ombo, a distinctive rock formation was visible from the new road. The rock formation looks like a face, and was originally named Adam. Among the local residents, this is also called "Ombo-gubben".</p><br>
<p>There are no outside road connections to Ombo&mdash;it is only accessible by boat. There are regular ferry connections that stop at Eidssund on the west coast from Judaberg, Sjernarøyane, Nedstrand, Jelsa, Halsnøya, and Fogn. There are also regular ferry connections from Skipavik on the eastern shore of the island to Nesvik and Hjelmelandsvågen on the mainland.</p><br>
<p>Paterson Inlet is a large natural harbour in the eastern coast of Stewart Island/Rakiura, New Zealand, much of which is unspoilt forest.</p><br>
<p>This region was first inhabited by the Māori, who settled at a locale known as The Neck, which is a long peninsula that extends across the mouth of the inlet from the southern coast. The only town on Stewart Island, Oban is located on the north coast of the inlet, close to its mouth. In earlier times, the inlet was used as a base for whaling. Southern right whales were the main target in this area and over expoited. Fortunately, however, their sightings around the island are increasing recently.</p><br>
<p>Paterson Inlet has three main arms; North Arm and South West Arm lie at the upper reaches of the inlet, 15 kilometres from its mouth. Big Glory Bay, the third arm of the inlet, lies behind The Neck in the southeast of the inlet. The inlet drains the Rakeahua and Freshwater Rivers, the latter of which drains a large swampy valley that covers much of the northern part of the island.</p><br>
<p>Several islands lie in the inlet, notably Ulva Island and Native Island.</p><br>
<p>In June 2004 the government announced that Paterson Inlet will become a mātaitai to be known as Te Whaka a Te Wera Mātaitai Reserve.</p><br>
<p>Mount Hopkins is located in the Southern Alps of New Zealand&#39;s South Island. It lies 25 km to the southwest of Aoraki / Mount Cook, and rises to 2,678 m. Several rivers have their sources on or close to the slopes of Mount Hopkins, notably the Landsborough River to the west, the Dobson River to the east, and Hopkins River to the south. At Mount Hopkins, the traditional boundaries of the former Otago, Westland, and Canterbury Provinces meet, these boundaries survive today as provincial districts, and only serve for the purposes of determining anniversary days. However, the modern day boundaries of the Otago region, the West Coast region and the Canterbury region meet further south at Mt Strauchon, which is also on the Main Divide.</p><br>
<p>Mount Merapi, Gunung Merapi , is an active stratovolcano located on the border between Central Java and Yogyakarta, Indonesia. It is the most active volcano in Indonesia and has erupted regularly since 1548. It is located approximately 28 km north of Yogyakarta city which has a population of 2.4 million, and thousands of people live on the flanks of the volcano, with villages as high as 1,700 m above sea level.</p><br>
<p>Smoke can often be seen emerging from the mountaintop, and several eruptions have caused fatalities. Pyroclastic flow from a large explosion killed 27 people on 22 November 1994, mostly in the town of Muntilan, west of the volcano. Another large eruption occurred in 2006, shortly before the Yogyakarta earthquake. In light of the hazards that Merapi poses to populated areas, it has been designated as one of the Decade Volcanoes.</p><br>
<p>On 25 October 2010 the Indonesian government raised the alert for Mount Merapi to its highest level and warned villagers in threatened areas to move to safer ground. People living within the range of a 20 km zone were told to evacuate. Officials said about 500 volcanic earthquakes had been recorded on the mountain over the weekend of 23–24 October, and that the magma had risen to about 1 km below the surface due to the seismic activity. On the afternoon of 25 October 2010 Mount Merapi erupted lava from its southern and southeastern slopes.</p><br>
<p>The mountain was still erupting on 30 November 2010, but due to lowered eruptive activity on 3 December 2010 the official alert status was reduced to level 3. The volcano is now 2930 metres high, 38 metres lower than before the 2010 eruptions.</p><br>
<p>After a large eruption in 2010 the characteristic of Mount Merapi was changed. On 18 November 2013 Mount Merapi burst smoke up to 2,000 meters high, one of its first major phreatic eruptions after the 2010 eruption. Researchers said that this eruption occurred due to combined effect of hot volcanic gases and abundant rainfall.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The name Merapi could be loosely translated as the Mountain of Fire. The etymology of the name came from Meru-Api; from the Javanese combined words; Meru means "mountain", refer to mythical mountain of Gods in Hinduism, and api means "fire".</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Geological history</h3><br>
<p>Merapi is the youngest in a group of volcanoes in southern Java. It is situated at a subduction zone, where the Indo-Australian Plate is subducting under the Sunda Plate. It is one of at least 129 active volcanoes in Indonesia, part of the volcano is located in the Southeastern part of the Pacific Ring of Fire–a section of fault lines stretching from the Western Hemisphere through Japan and South East Asia. Stratigraphic analysis reveals that eruptions in the Merapi area began about 400,000 years ago, and from then until about 10,000 years ago, eruptions were typically effusive, and the out flowing lava emitted was basaltic. Since then, eruptions have become more explosive, with viscous andesitic lavas often generating lava domes. Dome collapse has often generated pyroclastic flows, and larger explosions, which have resulted in eruption columns, have also generated pyroclastic flows through column collapse.</p><br>
<p>Typically, small eruptions occur every two to three years, and larger ones every 10–15 years or so. Notable eruptions, often causing many deaths, have occurred in 1006, 1786, 1822, 1872, and 1930. Thirteen villages were destroyed in the later one, and 1400 people killed by pyroclastic flows.</p><br>
<p>The very large eruption in 1006 is claimed to have covered all of central Java with ash. The volcanic devastation is claimed to have led to the collapse of the Hindu Kingdom of Mataram; however, the evidence from that era is insufficient for this to be substantiated.</p><br>
<h3>2006 eruption</h3><br>
<p>In April 2006, increased seismicity at more regular intervals and a detected bulge in the volcanos cone indicated that fresh eruptions were imminent. Authorities put the volcanos neighboring villages on high alert and local residents prepared for a likely evacuation. On 19 April smoke from the crater reached a height of 400 m, compared to 75 m the previous day. On 23 April, after nine surface tremors and some 156 multifaced quakes signalled movements of magma, some 600 elderly and infant residents of the slopes were evacuated.</p><br>
<p>By early May, active lava flows had begun. On 11 May, with lava flow beginning to be constant, some 17,000 people were ordered to be evacuated from the area and on 13 May, Indonesian authorities raised the alert status to the highest level, ordering the immediate evacuation of all residents on the mountain. Many villagers defied the dangers posed by the volcano and returned to their villages, fearing that their livestock and crops would be vulnerable to theft. Activity calmed by the middle of May.</p><br>
<p>On the 27th of May, a 6.3 magnitude earthquake struck roughly 50 km southwest of Merapi, killing at least 5,000 and leaving at least 200,000 people homeless in the Yogyakarta region, heightening fears that Merapi would "blow". The quake did not appear to be a long-period oscillation, a seismic disturbance class that is increasingly associated with major volcanic eruptions. A further 11,000 villagers were evacuated on 6 June as lava and superheated clouds of gas poured repeatedly down its upper slopes towards Kaliadem, a location that was located southeast of Mt. Merapi. The pyroclastic flows are known locally as "wedhus gembel" (Javanese for "shaggy goat"). There were two fatalities as the result of the eruption.</p><br>
<h3>2010 eruption</h3><br>
<p>In late October 2010 the Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, Geological Agency (CVGHM), (Indonesian language—Pusat Vulkanologi & Mitigasi Bencana Geologi, Badan Geologi-PVMBG), reported that a pattern of increasing seismicity from Merapi had begun to emerge in early September.</p><br>
<p>Observers at Babadan 7 km west and Kaliurang 8 km south of the mountain reported hearing an avalanche on 12 September 2010. On September 13, 2010 white plumes were observed rising 800 m above the crater. Lava dome inflation, detected since March, increased from background levels of 0.1 mm to 0.3 mm per day to a rate of 11 mm per day on 16 September. On 19 September 2010 earthquakes continued to be numerous, and the next day CVGHM raised the Alert Level to 2 (on a scale of 1–4). Lava from Mount Merapi in Central Java began flowing down the Gendol River on 23–24 October signalling the likelihood of an imminent eruption.</p><br>
<p>On 25 October 2010, the Indonesian government raised the alert for Mount Merapi to its highest level (4) and warned villagers in threatened areas to move to safer ground. People living within a 10 km zone were told to evacuate. The evacuation orders affected at least 19,000 people; however, the number that complied at the time remained unclear to authorities. Officials said about 500 volcanic earthquakes had been recorded on the mountain over the weekend of 23–24 October, and that the magma had risen to about 1 km below the surface due to the seismic activity</p><br>
<p>After a period of multiple eruptions considered to exceed the intensity and duration of those in 1872 on 10 November 2010 the intensity and frequency of eruptions was noticed to subside. By this time 153 people had been reported to have been killed and 320,000 were displaced. Later the eruptive activities again increased requiring a continuation of the Level 4 alert and continued provision of exclusion zones around the volcano. By 18 November the death toll had increased to 275. The toll had risen to 324 by 24 November and Syamsul Maarif, head of the National Disaster Mitigation Agency (BNPB) explained that the death toll had risen after a number of victims succumbed to severe burns and more bodies were found on the volcano’s slopes.</p><br>
<p>In the aftermath of the more intensive eruptive activities in late November Yogyakarta’s Disaster Management Agency reported that there were about 500 reported cases of eruption survivors in Sleman district suffering from minor to severe psychological problems, and about 300 cases in Magelang. By 3 December the death toll had risen to 353.</p><br>
<p>On Friday 3 December 2010 the head of the National Disaster Management Agency (BNPB), Dr. Syamsul Maarif, M. Si, accompanied by the head of the Centre for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation CVGHM (PVMBG), Dr. Surono made a joint press release at the BNPB Command Post in Yogyakarta. As of 3 December 2010, at 09.00 am, the CVGHM (PVMBG) lowered the status of Mount Merapi to the level of Caution Alert (Level III). They clarified that with this alert level the potential of hot ash clouds and projected incandescent material remained. The Geological Agency provided several recommendations including that there would be no community activities in the disaster prone areas and proclaimed an ongoing exclusion zone of 2.5 km radius.</p><br>
<h2>Monitoring</h2><br>
<p>Mount Merapi is the site of a very active volcano monitoring program. Seismic monitoring began in 1924, with some of the volcano monitoring stations lasting until the present. The Babadan (northwest location), Selo (in the saddle between Merbabu and Merapi), and Plawangan monitoring stations have been updated with equipment over the decades since establishment. During the 1950s and early 1960s some of the stations were starved of equipment and funds, but after the 1970s considerable improvement occurred with the supply of new equipment. Some of the pre-1930 observation posts were destroyed by the 1930 eruption, and newer posts were re-located. Similarly after the 1994 eruption, the Plawangan post and equipment were moved into Kaliurang as a response to the threat of danger to the volcanological personnel at the higher point. This volcano is monitored by the Deep Earth Carbon Degassing Project.</p><br>
<p>The eruption of 1930 was found to have been preceded by a large earthquake swarm. The network of 8 seismographs currently around the volcano allow volcanologists to accurately pinpoint the hypocentres of tremors and quakes.</p><br>
<p>A zone in which no quakes originate is found about 1.5 km below the summit, and is thought to be the location of the magma reservoir which feeds the eruptions.</p><br>
<p>Other measurements taken on the volcano include magnetic measurements and tilt measurements. Small changes in the local magnetic field have been found to coincide with eruptions, and tilt measurements reveal the inflation of the volcano caused when the magma chambers beneath it is filling up.</p><br>
<p>Lahars (a type of mudflow of pyroclastic material and water) are an important hazard on the mountain, and are caused by rain remobilizing pyroclastic flow deposits. Lahars can be detected seismically, as they cause a high-frequency seismic signal. Observations have found that about 50 mm of rain per hour is the threshold above which lahars are often generated.</p><br>
<h2>Sabo Dam</h2><br>
<p>There are about 90 units (30 percent) from the total 258 units of sand barriers (sabo) were damaged. The cost for recovery is about Rp.1 trillion ($116 million).</p><br>
<h2>Sterile zone</h2><br>
<p>Following the 2010 eruption, three Indonesian government departments declared a prohibited zone which nobody can permanently stay and no infrastructure is allowed in 9 villages (dusun): Palemsari, Pangukrejo, Kaliadem, Jambu, Kopeng, Petung, Kalitengah Lor, Kalitengah Kidul and Srunen, all in Cangkringan district.</p><br>
<h2>National park</h2><br>
<p>In 2004 an area of 6,410 hectares around Mount Merapi was established as a national park. The decision of the Ministry of Forestry to declare the park has been subsequently challenged in court by The Indonesian Forum for Environment, on grounds of lack of consultation with local residents. During the 2006 eruption of the volcano it was reported that many residents were reluctant to leave because they feared their residences would be confiscated for expansion of the national park, meaning they wouldn&#39;t have a house.</p><br>
<h2>Museum</h2><br>
<p>Merapi Museum Center, Kaliurang Street Kilometer 25.7, Pakem subdistrict, Sleman, Yogyakarta. A replica of Merapi&#39;s Post 2010 Eruption has been created and Indonesian student visits to the museum has increased 30 percent since the latest eruption.</p><br>
<h2>Mythology</h2><br>
<p>Merapi is very important to Javanese, especially those living around its crater. As such, there are many myths and beliefs attached to Merapi.</p><br>
<h3>Creation</h3><br>
<p>Although most nearby villages have their own myths about the creation of Mount Merapi, they have numerous commonalities.</p><br>
<p>It is believed that when the gods had just created the Earth, Java was unbalanced because of the placement of Mount Jamurdipo on the west end of the island. In order to assure balance, the gods (generally represented by Batara Guru) ordered the mountain to be moved to the centre of Java. However, two armourers, Empu Rama and Empu Permadi, were already forging a sacred keris at the site where Mount Jamurdipo was to be moved. The gods warned them that they would be moving a mountain there, and that they should leave; Empu Rama and Empu Permadi ignored that warning. In anger, the gods buried Empu Rama and Empu Permadi under Mount Jamurdipo; their spirits later became the rulers of all mystical beings in the area. In memory of them, Mount Jamurdipo was later renamed Mount Merapi, which means "fire of Rama and Permadi."</p><br>
<h3>Spirit Kraton of Merapi</h3><br>
<p>The Javanese believe that the Earth is not only populated by human beings, but also by spirits (makhluk halus). Villages near Merapi believe that one of the palaces (in Javanese kraton) used by the rulers of the spirit kingdom lies inside Merapi, ruled by Empu Rama and Empu Permadi. This palace is said to be a spiritual counterpart to the Yogyakarta Sultanate, complete with roads, soldiers, princes, vehicles, and domesticated animals.</p><br>
<p>Besides the rulers, the palace is said to also be populated by the spirits of ancestors who died as righteous people. The spirits of these ancestors are said to live in the palace as royal servants (abdi dalem), occasionally visiting their descendants in dreams to give prophecies or warnings. "</p><br>
<h3>Spirits of Merapi</h3><br>
<p>To keep the volcano quiet and to appease the spirits of the mountain, the Javanese regularly bring offerings on the anniversary of the sultan of Yogyakarta&#39;s coronation. For Yogyakarta Sultanate, Merapi holds significant cosmological symbolism, because it is forming a sacred north-south axis line between Merapi peak and Southern Ocean (Indian Ocean). The sacred axis is signified by Merapi peak in the north, the monument near Yogyakarta main train station, the axis runs along Malioboro street to Northern Alun-alun (square) across Keraton Yogyakarta (sultan palace), Southern Alun-alun, all the way to Bantul and finally reach Samas and Parangkusumo beach on the estuary of Opak river and Southern Ocean. This sacred axis connected the hyangs or spirits of mountain revered since ancient times—often identified as "Mbah Petruk" by Javanese people—The Sultan of Yogyakarta as the leader of the Javanese kingdom, and Nyi Roro Kidul as the queen of the Southern Ocean, the female ocean deity revered by Javanese people and also mythical consort of Javanese kings.</p><br>
<p>Batan Island is the main island of Batanes, an archipelagic province in the Philippines. It is the second largest of the Batanes Islands, the northernmost group of islands in the country. Four of the six municipalities of Batanes are located on the 20 km long island including the provincial capital of Basco. The other municipalities are Ivana, Mahatao and Uyugan.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Batan is a dumbbell-shaped volcanic island, part of the Luzon Volcanic Arc. The northern part of the island is dominated by the 1,009 m high active volcano, Mount Iraya, which last erupted in 1454. The lower portion of the island is the inactive volcano Mount Matarem, about 405 m tall. A hilly narrow neck of land, about 4.5 km long and from 1.9 to 2.5 km wide, separates the two volcanoes of the island. Near Mt. Matarem, the island is at its widest at about 6.5 km.</p><br>
<p>Sabtang Island, the nearest island to Batan is located about 4.5 km southwest of the southern tip of the island. Itbayat, the largest island of the archipelago, is about 32 km northwest of the central part of Batan.</p><br>
<h2>Events</h2><br>
<p>The Japanese invasion of the Philippines began with the invasion of Batan Island by a 490-man naval combat unit and an indeterminate number of air corps troops, on two transports escorted by one destroyer and four torpedo boats. This was the first landing on American territory, the same day as the attack on Pearl Harbor. Japanese forces quickly secured the existing small airfield outside Basco without resistance and began expansion work immediately as a forward base for operations against Luzon. However, work was discontinued only a few days later as the success of the Japanese bombing of Clark Field rendered a base at Basco redundant. On 10 December 1941, the naval combat force was withdrawn.</p><br>
<p>Cross Fell is the highest mountain in the Pennine Hills of Northern England and the highest point in England outside the Lake District. It is located in the North Pennines Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty.</p><br>
<p>The summit, at 2,930 ft, is a stony plateau, part of a 7.8-mile-long (12.6-kilometre-long) ridge running north-west to south-east, which also incorporates Little Dun Fell at 2,762 ft and Great Dun Fell at 2,785 ft. The three adjoining fells form an escarpment that rises steeply above the Eden Valley on its south-western side and drops off more gently on its north-eastern side towards the South Tyne and Tees Valleys.</p><br>
<p>Cross Fell summit is crowned by a cross-shaped dry-stone shelter which has been damaged over the years by snow and ice. On a clear day there are excellent views from the summit across the Eden Valley to the mountains of the Lake District. On the northern side of Cross Fell there are also fine views across the Solway Firth to the Southern Uplands of Scotland.</p><br>
<p>The fell is prone to dense hill fog and fierce winds. A shrieking noise induced by the Helm Wind is a characteristic of the locality. It can be an inhospitable place for much of the year. In ancient times it was known as "Fiends Fell" and believed to be the haunt of evil spirits. St Augustine of Canterbury is said to have blessed the hill when he arrived here on his travels so it became known as Cross Fell in the Christian tradition, although it has been speculated that the fell became known as Cross Fell ("cross" meaning "angry") because of the evil spirits.</p><br>
<h2>Local geography</h2><br>
<p>Cross Fell and the adjoining fells are mainly a bed of hard, carboniferous limestone. Where this bed surfaces, there are steep rock faces. There are also strata of shale and gritstone that surface on the fell. On the south and west facing slopes of Cross Fell the rock faces have been broken up by frost action to give a scree slope made up of large boulders. The local terrain shows obvious evidence of recent glaciation and is covered by thin soil and acidic peat.</p><br>
<p>Cross Fell, Great Dun Fell and Little Dun Fell form a block of high terrain which is all over 800 m in altitude. This is the largest block of high ground in England and tends to retain snow-cover longer than neighbouring areas. Snow can be found in gullies on the north side of Cross Fell as late as May in most years. In some years, lying snow has been known to persist until July and fresh snowfall in June (mid-summer in the Northern Hemisphere) is common.</p><br>
<p>Precipitation on Cross Fell averages around 280 cm per year. Local flora includes a number of rare alpine plants such as the Starry Saxifrage and a mountain Forget-me-not. Cross Fell is covered by what is known as "siliceous alpine and boreal grassland". It is the southernmost outlier of this vegetation type, which is common to highlands in Scotland and Scandinavia. It is a designated Special Area of Conservation (SAC). Local farmers are required to keep free-roaming sheep off the tops of the fells in order to avoid damaging the natural flora.</p><br>
<p>Cross Fell is a conspicuous feature in the landscape. It dominates the skyline on almost the entire 20 mi length of the A66 trunk road between Penrith and Stainmore. It can also be seen from many points in the Lake District, including the Helvellyn summit, and from high ground throughout Dumfriesshire and Northumberland.</p><br>
<p>Tadiandamol or Thadiyandamol  is the highest mountain of  Kodagu district, Karnataka, India. It is the third highest peak in Karnataka. It is located Western Ghats range, and reaches an elevation of 1,748 m. The mountain has patches of shola forests in the valleys.</p><br>
<p>The Nalaknad (also known as Nalnad - meaning 4 villages) palace at the foothills is an important historical landmark. This was one of the landmarks mapped during the Great Trigonometric Survey.</p><br>
<p>It is a place of interest for trekkers and naturalists. The climb to the top and back can be completed as a day hike; camping is banned since December 2016.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The name Tadiandamol literally means largest base (thadi=broad, large, huge; anda=belonging to (possessive) in Kodava; mol=hill, base, peak). It loosely means Tallest Mount, and the name also could translate as Broad Hill.</p><br>
<p>Glittertind  is the second highest mountain in Norway, at 2,465 m above sea level, including the glacier at its peak . It is located within the municipality of Lom, in the Jotunheimen mountain area.</p><br>
<p>Glittertind had earlier been a challenger for the title as the highest mountain in Norway, as measurements showed Glittertind including the glacier was slightly higher than Galdhøpiggen (2,469 m above sea level with no glacier at the summit). In a 1917 official map, the mountain was indicated to be 2481 m. So it was a matter of defining a glacier as a part of a mountain or not. The glacier has, however, shrunk in recent years, and the dispute has been settled in Galdhøpiggen&#39;s favour. The summit of Glittertind was reached for the first time in 1841 by Harald Nicolai Storm Wergeland and Hans Sletten.</p><br>
<p>Glittertind is easily accessible from Spiterstulen lodge in the west, by a climb of 1300 m, and from Glitterheim lodge in the east, by a climb of 1000 m. The hike from Glitterheim is the easier, but Glitterheim is inside the National Park and can therefore only be reached by foot. The summit hike is a very popular one, only surpassed in seasonal numbers by Galdhøpiggen, its western neighbor.</p><br>
<p>The route across the glacier that crowns the summit is completely without crevasses, but on a hot summer day it might be a wet hike across the melting snow which covers the ice. Visitors might even experience that the meltwater blows up across the summit, leaving hikers totally soaked. The view is magnificent. East and southeast of Glittertind there are hardly any high peaks, and hence most of the northern and eastern parts of the province of Oppland can be seen. All famous photos of Glittertind are taken on the eastern flank slightly below the top.</p><br>
<p>There used to be a cabin at the summit, but because of the impossibility of mooring it sufficiently, it was taken by a storm and landed on the Grjotbreen glacier, under the steep north wall of the summit.</p><br>
<h2>The name</h2><br>
<p>The mountain is named after the river Glitra, the last element is the finite form of tind m mountain peak. The name of the river is derived from the verb glitre glitter, sparkle.</p><br>
<h2>Guidebooks</h2><br>
<p>A. Dyer et al. Walks and Scrambles in Norway.</p><br>
<p>Bernhard Pollmann Norway South.</p><br>
<p>Isla Culebrita  is a small, uninhabited island off the eastern coast of Culebra, Puerto Rico and is part of the Puerto Rico Archipelago. Together with Cayo Botella off the northwestern point, and Pelá and Pelaita to the west, it belongs to the barrio Frailes of Culebra. It is a nature reserve and is part of the Culebra National Wildlife Refuge. The island is home to Culebrita Lighthouse, one of the oldest lighthouses in the Caribbean. Culebrita is only accessible by private boat from the main island of Culebra.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Culebrita is a coral island approximately 1 mile in length. It is roughly y-shaped with three branches extending from the island&#39;s center.</p><br>
<p>There are six beaches on Culebrita, the chief one being Playa Tortuga (Turtle Beach) on the north side of the island. The beach is named for the many sea turtles that use the beach for breeding grounds and the surrounding waters for grazing. Sea turtles Tina and Ike call Playa Tortuga home. The other two large beaches are Trash Beach and West Beach. Because Trash Beach is located on the windward side of the island, debris is often blown onto this beach. This is how the beach gets its name. West Beach is where the water taxis from Culebra Island dock.</p><br>
<p>There are also large tidal pools on the east side of the island where people lounge as if they were large baths. The pools trap small sea life at low tide. The west side of the island contains two lagoons. The Culebrita Reef lays off the southern coast of the island.</p><br>
<h2>Wetlands</h2><br>
<p>Isla Culebrita has two shallow lagoons, the largest of which, Laguna de Molino (Mill Lagoon), is located in northwest branch of the island. It covers approximately 5.5 acre and is about 3 ft below sea level. The second lagoon, referred to as the eastern tidal flat, is located near the middle of the island’s west coast and covers about 0.9 acre. Both lagoons are bordered on the seaward-side by a small mangrove fringe. These wetlands are an important habitat for some of the local wildlife.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>In 2006, an environmental and cultural resource survey of Culebrita was carried out by Southeastern Archaeological Research (SEARCH) of Jonesville, Florida and Ellis Environmental Group, LC, in conjunction with the USA Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), Huntsville in order to identify “cultural resources, sensitive habitats, and endangered plants and animals that may exist” on Isla Culebrita. During the survey, a total of 97 plant species were recorded, none of which are state or federally threatened or endangered species. In addition, 32 birds, 4 reptiles, and 2 mammals were recorded. Of these animals, one federally endangered species, the brown pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis) and one threatened species, the white-cheeked pintail (Anas bahamensis) were observed. Endangered green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) were also observed on the island.</p><br>
<p>Fort McIntosh was a USA Army base in Laredo, Webb County, Texas, that existed from 1849 to 1946.</p><br>
<p>Fort McIntosh was established on 3 March 1849 by the 1st US Infantry, under the command of Lt. E.L. Viele, to guard the Texas frontier at the site of a strategic river crossing. Originally named Camp Crawford, the fort was renamed Fort McIntosh in 1850 in honor of Lieutenant Colonel James Simmons McIntosh, a hero in the Battle of Molino del Rey during the Mexican–American War.</p><br>
<p>The fort was abandoned by Federal troops at the outbreak of the American Civil War. The Battle of Laredo took place near the fort on March 19, 1864, when seventy-two men repelled three attacks from a force of two hundred Federal soldiers sent from Brownsville, Texas On October 23, 1865, the post was re-occupied by federal troops of the 2nd Texas Cavalry.</p><br>
<p>In the late 19th century, Several African American units among them the Tenth Cavalry, the "Buffalo Soldiers", were stationed at Fort McIntosh. Other forts in the frontier fort system were Forts Griffin, Concho, Belknap, Chadbourne, Fort Stockton, Fort Davis, Fort Bliss, McKavett, Clark, Richardson, Fort Inge and Phantom Hill in Texas, and Fort Sill in Oklahoma. There were "sub posts or intermediate stations" including Bothwick&#39;s Station on Salt Creek between Fort Richardson and Fort Belknap, Camp Wichita near Buffalo Springs between Fort Richardson and Red River Station, and Mountain Pass between Fort Concho and Fort Griffin.</p><br>
<p>During World War I, the fort was used as a training base and saw over 15,000 recruits pass</p><br>
<p>through the gates. During World War II, the 8th Service Command, the 56th Cavalry Brigade, the Southern Land Frontier, the Civil Air Patrol, and battalion of military police all were stationed at the facility at one time or another.</p><br>
<p>The fort was deactivated in 1946, and the land is now part of the campus of Laredo Community College main campus.</p><br>
<p>The Laredo United States Army Reserve 340th Quarter Master Company is located within the fort.</p><br>
<h2>National Register of Historic Places</h2><br>
<p>The National Register of Historic Places added Fort McIntosh (#75002011) to its registered historic districts in 1975. Its areas of historic significance are its 1850-1924 Late Victorian Architecture and Military background. All of Fort McIntosh buildings have been preserved and remodeled and today they serve as educational buildings for Laredo Community College. The former officers barracks has been renovated into Arechiga Hall, named for the third LCC president, Domingo Arechiga.</p><br>
<p>The former Holding Institute boarding school was established south of Fort McIntosh from 1881–1954, when it relocated to north Laredo because of funding. The institution closed in 1983 and was revived as a community center in downtown Laredo in 1987.</p><br>
<p>881-</p><br>
<h2>Aerial View</h2><br>
<p>Trikolonoi  is a former municipality in Arcadia, Peloponnese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Gortynia, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 102.031 km. The municipal unit includes the villages of Stemnitsa , Syrna, Pavlia, Palamari and Elliniko. Trikolonoi is located southeast of Dimitsana, west of Tripoli and north of Megalopoli. In 2011 Trikolonoi had a population of 578.</p><br>
<h2>Subdivisions</h2><br>
<p>The municipal unit Trikolonoi is subdivided into the following communities (constituent villages in brackets):</p><br>
<p>Elliniko</p><br>
<p>Palamari (Palamari, Psari)</p><br>
<p>Pavlia</p><br>
<p>Stemnitsa (Stemnitsa, Moni Agiou Ioannou Prodromou)</p><br>
<p>Syrna (Syrna, Ano Kalyvia)</p><br>
<h2>Population history</h2><br>
<p>The Motueka River is located in the north of the South Island of New Zealand and is a popular tourist destination for watersports and fishing. The Motueka flows 116 km from the mountains 40 km west of the city of Nelson in the southeast of the catchment and flows north to the Tasman Bay.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Motueka River lies 60 kilometres to the south of Nelson, and flows for 120 kilometres, first through rough hill country and then the more gently undulating terrain southwest of Tasman Bay, passing by many small communities such as Ngatimoti, Woodstock, Riwaka, Brooklyn and many others as it makes it way its outflow into the bay close to the town of Motueka. These communities are connected to the town of Motueka in the north and SH 6 in the south by the Motueka Valley Highway.</p><br>
<p>The Motueka has three major tributaries, the Motupiko River, Wangapeka River and the Baton River, as well as smaller tributaries called the Pearse, Dove, Tadmor, and Rainy.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The river runs through a wide band of granite and areas of recent alluvium, with a complex mix of sedimentary and igneous rocks, originating from the mountainous terrain of the Arthur Range which form the western boundary of the catchment area. and a region of clay-bound gravels to the eastern boundary. As well as the granites, the wide variety of rock types found along the course of the river include complex basement rock, ultramafic, old and young sedimentary rocks.</p><br>
<h2>Flooding and river flow</h2><br>
<p>The Motueka is a large river with average annual flow of 59 cubic meters per second and a flow range from 6 to more than</p><br>
<p>2,100 cubic meters per second. The average monthly flow has seasonal variation and it at its highest in winter and</p><br>
<p>spring. The mountain catchment areas to the west and southeast have the highest rainfall and provide most of the mean annual flow for the Motueka River. Significant flooding was a serious problem for the local population and a major flood in 1877 led to widespread erosion and changed the course of the river in several areas. There have since been serious flooding in January 1895, July 1929, June 1954 and April 1957 but this was thought to have been addressed when the Motueka Catchment Control Scheme was completed in 1982. In May 2010, however, twenty homes were flooded by the Motueka River in the Wangapeka area near Tapawera and residents had to be evacuated.</p><br>
<h2>Fishing</h2><br>
<p>The river is well known for its excellent Brown trout fishing throughout its entire length. Large numbers of trout range below the Wangapeka confluence and very large trophy fish have been caught.</p><br>
<h2>Watersports</h2><br>
<p>The river is also noted for rafting, canoeing or just drifting down on an inner-tube. Kayaks can be hired from a number of commercial companies and organised trips are available.</p><br>
<h2>Invasive algae</h2><br>
<p>Precautions have been taken to control the spread of an invasive algae Didymosphenia geminata, commonly known as didymo or rock snot, a species of diatom, in the Motueka River and its tributaries. This algae grows in warm and shallow water and can form large mats on the bottom of rivers. It is not considered a health risk but can affect stream habitats and sources of food for fish and make recreational activities unpleasant. It is considered a nuisance organism or invasive species. The microscopic algae can be spread in a single drop of water, so anglers must clean their waders and boots before moving to different rivers or face a fine of up to $100,000 or up to five years in prison.</p><br>
<h2>Integrated Catchment Management (ICM) project</h2><br>
<p>The Motueka River has a wide range of land uses over its catchment of over 2000 square kilometers which include agriculture, with hops, tobacco, Asian pears and kiwifruit grown on the banks of the middle and the lower reaches and commercial forestry on lowland and hill areas. The livestock farming uses include sheep and beef farming and, increasingly, dairy farming, which requires a number of cow crossings on the river that can affect water quality, through introducing fecal coliform microbes and conflict with sports such as fishing. A special research project was therefore established as part of a nine-year programme that began in July 2000 and ended in September 2010. The aim of the research was to provide information to support the management of the environment of the area using an Integrated Catchment Management (ICM) approach. This recognises the catchment or river basin as an ecosystem and includes consideration of social, economic and political factors.</p><br>
<h2>Water quality</h2><br>
<p>The Motueka River is relatively unpolluted compared to most New Zealand rivers and usually meets the water quality requirements for swimming under baseflow conditions.</p><br>
<p>The Lucy Glacier is a wide glacier which flows southeast from the Antarctic polar plateau, between Laird Plateau and McKay Cliffs, into Nimrod Glacier. It is named after W.R. Lucy, surveyor with 1963-64 Scott Base projects, who wintered over in 1964, and was surveyor with the 1964-65 Geologists Range field party of the New Zealand Geological Survey Antarctic Expedition .</p><br>
<p>On December 31, 1993, a ski-equipped Hercules (LC-130) aircraft crashed on Lucy Glacier, near Mount Isbell. The aircraft was retrieving a group from the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee who had spent six weeks investigating the geology in the mountains between the Byrd Glacier and Nimrod Glacier. The group consisted of Gina Seegers-Szablewski, Greg Gelhar, mountaineer Shaun Norman (New Zealand), and John Isbell.</p><br>
<p>The Queen Alexandra Range is a major mountain range of the Transantarctic Mountains System, located in the Ross Dependency region of Antarctica.</p><br>
<p>It is about 160 km (100 mi) long, bordering the entire western side of Beardmore Glacier from the Polar Plateau to the Ross Ice Shelf. Alternate names for this range include Alexandra Mountains, Alexandra Range and Königin Alexandra Gebirge.</p><br>
<p>The highest peak of the range is Mount Kirkpatrick at 4,528 m. Other peaks in the range include Mount Dickerson (4,120 m).</p><br>
<h2>Discovery</h2><br>
<p>This mountain range was discovered on the journey toward the South Pole by the British Antarctic Expedition, and was named by Ernest Shackleton for Queen Alexandra of England. Shackleton and his men, and a later expedition headed by Robert Falcon Scott, both collected rock samples from the range that contained fossils. The discovery that multicellular life forms had lived so close to the South Pole was an additional piece of evidence that accompanied the publication (in 1910 and independently in 1912) of the theory of continental drift.</p><br>
<h2>Mountains and peaks</h2><br>
<h3>Ahmadjian Peak</h3><br>
<p>Ahmadjian Peak is a prominent ice-covered peak, standing 4.5 miles (7 km) southwest of Mount Fox. Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names (US-ACAN) for Vernon Ahmadjian, United States Antarctic Research Program (USARP) biologist at McMurdo Station, 1963-64.</p><br>
<h3>Mount Bishop</h3><br>
<p>Mount Bishop stands 3.2 km south of Ahmadjian Peak. Named by US-ACAN after Lieutenant Barry Chapman Bishop (1932–94), United States Air Force (USAF), an observer with the Argentine Antarctic Expedition (1956–57); member of the Staff of the USA Antarctica Projects Officer, 1958 and 1959; member of the American party which on May 22, 1962, succeeded in climbing Mount Everest.</p><br>
<h3>Decennial Peak</h3><br>
<p>Decennial Peak is a peak situated 4.8 km (3 mi) southwest of Mount Kirkpatrick. Mapped by United States Geological Survey (USGS) from surveys and USA Navy air photos, 1958-65. Named by US-ACAN in recognition of the Decennial of the Institute of Polar Studies, Ohio State University, in 1970, the same year the University celebrated its Centennial. The university and the Institute have been very active in Antarctic investigations since 1960.</p><br>
<h3>Mount Elizabeth</h3><br>
<p>Mount Elizabeth is a large ice-free mountain 4,480 metres high situated 6 mi south of Mount Anne. Discovered by the British Antarctic Expedition and named for Elizabeth Dawson-Lambton, a supporter of the BAE.</p><br>
<h3>Mount Fox</h3><br>
<p>Mount Fox is a mountain standing 1 mi SW of Mount F.L. Smith. Discovered and named by the British Antarctic Expedition.</p><br>
<h3>Mount Ida</h3><br>
<p>Mount Ida is a conspicuous bare rock mountain, standing 2 miles (3.2 km) west of Granite Pillars, just southeast of the head of King Glacier. Discovered by the British Antarctic Expedition (1907–09), and named for Ida Jane Rule of Christchurch, New Zealand, who later married Edward Saunders, Secretary to Shackleton, who assisted in preparing the narrative of the expedition.</p><br>
<h3>Mount Stanley</h3><br>
<p>Mount Stanley stands northeast of the head of Wyckoff Glacier near the western limits of Grindley Plateau. Named by the British Antarctic Expedition (1907–09) for the eldest brother of Dr. E.S. Marshall, a member of the expedition. This identification is the New Zealand Geological Survey Antarctic Expedition (NZGSAE) (1961–62) interpretation of the original positioning by the British Antarctic Expedition (1907–09).</p><br>
<h3>Morris Heights</h3><br>
<p>Morris Heights ({{coord|83|28|S|169|42|E|display=inline}}) is a relatively smooth ice-covered heights, forming a peninsula-like divide between Beaver and King Glaciers at the north end of Queen Alexandra Range. Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names (US-ACAN) for Lieutenant Clarence T. Morris, U.S. Navy, aerology officer on the staff of the Commander, U.S. Naval Support Force, Antarctica, 1962 and 1963.</p><br>
<p>Canada Glacier is a small glacier flowing south-east into the northern side of Taylor Valley in Victoria Land, Antarctica. It is in the Ross Dependency. Its melting season is in the summer.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The glacier receives less than 10 cm of snowfall annually, and is (technically) an ecosystem. Its seasonal melting feeds Lake Hoare to the west and Lake Fryxell to the east.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The glacier was discovered and named in the course of the Terra Nova Expedition (1910–1913), under Robert Scott. Charles S. Wright, a Canadian physicist, was a member of the party that explored the area.</p><br>
<h2>Antarctic Specially Protected Area</h2><br>
<p>An area of about 1 km on the eastern side of the glacier is protected under the Antarctic Treaty System as Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA) No.131 because it contains some of the richest plant growth (bryophytes and algae) in the McMurdo Dry Valleys region. It is exceptionally important not only for its ecological and biological values, but also as a reference site for other similar ecosystems. The site comprises sloping ice-free ground with summer ponds and meltwater streams. It is unusual in receiving more consistent water flows than many other parts of the Dry Valleys region, and is sheltered from strong winds by the 20 m high glacier face.</p><br>
<p>The Purbeck Hills, also called the Purbeck Ridge, are a ridge of chalk downs in Dorset, England. The ridge extends from Lulworth Cove in the west to Old Harry Rocks in the east, where it meets the sea. The hills are part of a system of chalk downlands in southern England formed from the Chalk Group which also includes Salisbury Plain and the South Downs. For most of their length the chalk of the Purbeck Hills is protected from coastal erosion by a band of resistant Portland limestone. Where this band ends, at Durlston Head, the clay and chalk behind has been eroded, creating Poole Bay and the Solent. The ridge of steeply dipping chalk that forms the Purbeck Hills continues further east on the Isle of Wight.</p><br>
<p>The height of the chalk ridge and proximity to Poole Harbour and the south coast have made the hills of strategic importance. There are a number of Iron Age, Roman and Saxon archaeological sites, such as Nine Barrow Down. At Corfe Castle the hills are broken twice leaving a steep round hill between the ridges on which stood a medieval castle, guarding the only easy route through the hills, until the English Civil War of the 17th century, when it was ruined.</p><br>
<p>Some of the ridge, around the village of Tyneham, near Lulworth, has been closed to the public for use by the army as a firing range. This has protected them from damage from farming and development, and these areas are now nature reserves. At the eastern end Ballard Down is a National Trust nature reserve which is managed for its calcareous grassland habitat.</p><br>
<h2>Named hills</h2><br>
<p>Nine Barrow Down (199 m)</p><br>
<p>Ridgeway Hill (199 m)</p><br>
<p>Creech Barrow Hill (193 m) - sometimes counted as part of the Dorset Heaths</p><br>
<p>Bindon Hill (168 m), overlooking Lulworth Cove</p><br>
<p>Lake Fryxell is a frozen lake 4.5 km long, between Canada Glacier and Commonwealth Glaciers at the lower end of Taylor Valley in Victoria Land, Antarctica. It was mapped in the early 1900s and named during Operation Deep Freeze in the 1950s. There are several forms of algae living in the waters and a weather station located at the lake.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Lake Fryxell is 20 m deep, making it so the deepest portion of the lake is below sea level. The lake is dammed by Canada Glacier, making it so that it has no natural outflow. It is covered with about 4.5 m of ice, but during the summer months, the ice can clear along the shoreline. There are a few small islands as well as several shallow areas.</p><br>
<p>The average annual ablation is between 30 cm and 40 cm, which is significantly lower when compared to other nearby frozen water bodies, such as the waters adjacent to Ross Island.</p><br>
<h3>Watershed</h3><br>
<p>The watershed contains thirteen streams flowing into the lake, forming a watershed that has an area roughly 230 km&sup2; in size. Where a few of the streams enter the lake there are well-developed deltas. The streams flow for about 4–12 weeks out of the year. Nearly half of the water flowing into the lake comes from Canada, Lost Seal and Von Guerard streams.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>Lake Fryxell is located within the McMurdo Dry Valleys, which experience an exceptionally dry climate partially due to katabatic winds descending from the nearby mountains. These winds can exceed 320 km/h under certain conditions. These high winds can raise the temperature, melting snow and evaporating water. Average precipitation in the area surrounding the valley is equivalent to about 3 cm of rain a year and a mean annual temperature of -20 &deg;C with summer temperatures getting above freezing.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>There are multiple forms of algae within the lake, including a sizable population of sulfate-reducing bacteria. Some samples of these bacteria live in very specific areas, such as specific water depths or locations causing them to experience differing physiochemical conditions.</p><br>
<p>There is a lack of oxygen within Lake Fryxell, which is unique when compared to other lakes in the region because the anoxic region extends up to 9 m below the lake surface. This creates an environment similar to the planet about 2.4 billion years ago. Within anoxic areas, scientists have found bacterial mats that create small pockets saturated with oxygen.</p><br>
<h2>Human Activity</h2><br>
<p>Lake Fryxell is a focus of scientific research and contains a semi-permanent camp containing four labs and two other buildings. Electricity is generated at the camp using solar panels and a wind turbine. The four labs are used for experimenting with radioactive materials, electronics, chemicals and other materials. When staying at the camp, researchers sleep in tents, some of which are the same style as those used in some Antarctic expeditions in the early 20th Century. There is internet and phone access at the camp.</p><br>
<p>Research activities largely deal with the lake itself and can include scientists diving into the water. The camp has existed since at least 1984.</p><br>
